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PATRISTIC STUDIES 


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7. Bs THE INFLUENCE OF | 
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A DISSERTATION 


ἘΔ “Submitted to the Faculty of the School of Letters of the Catholic 
University of America in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements 
for the Degree of Dc _ or of Philosophy 





BY 


JAMES MARSHALL (CAMPBELL A. M. 


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CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA 
: WASHINGTON, D.C. 
1922 


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| THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY 
4 PATRISTIC STUDIES 


VOL. II 


THE INFLUENCE 
OF THE SECOND SOPHISTIC ON THE 
STYLE OF THE SERMONS oF 
ST. BASIL THE GREAT 


BY 


JAMES MARSHALL CAMPBELL A. Μ. 
a 





A DISSERTATION 


Submitted to the Faculty of the School of Letters of the Catholic 
University of America in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements 
for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy 


CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA 
WASHINGTON TE ©) 
19292 


OF AMERTOAY 17 ΘΗ, 





TABLE OF CONTENTS 


‘ Page 
ὙΠ ΠΡΟ dr a dws 9 a, RE ee τὸς ele ea eee iii 
σον Bag) cole) πον weve ene 4 oe ee eb el eee Υ͂ 
ΝΣ ει ες; τ τος oi mite vege ee Sia ix 
euronoiogical Table... .06 6 6 ee ee vA, Geile) yh SAME wile Nel Tale xiv 
EE ERO oy cat Sy Sela esis Cabaa fais elo ce hs Ar arias ape Gey 391 
Chapter I. Outline History of Greek Rhetoric ........ 1 
Chapter 11, The New or Second Sophistic .......... 14 
Chapter III. Minor Figures of Rhetoric. ........2.246-. 20 
Chapter IV. Figures of Redundancy ....... ante τ δὴν Ne 25 
Cmanter. V. Figures of Repetition “Ὁ Ὁ νὴ τὺ νον νι cele es 32 
Cuemeer .c VA, Pigures Of SOUND. fo. se eee ee ee ect ws OO 


Chapter VII. Figures of Vivacity. Other Devices of Composition 44 
Chapter VIII. Minor Figures especially characteristic of the Second 

CO SMOPMREAEAG fog “inthe gag ge Blas νην aoe aw μὴν en wheel. OO 
Chapter IX. Figures and Devices of the Secon Sophistic ... 76 
Chapter X. Gorgianic Figures and Allied Devices of Parallelism 80 


SOIGr ΧΙ, Ee: MOSADMOI τ τοὺς τ τ ον 8G sare γα εὐ gO 

Chapter XII. The Comparison. κότων, hs es ees ai a ae: AL 

ΠΝ ΟΝ PMCDUEOOIR Gig νιν τ ΡΣ ον pee φῦ ὁ ὁ ee 8 128 

πνοὲς τ ςς 146 

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SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY 


a) LITERARY HISTORY. 


BarDENHEWER, O., Geschichta der altkirchlichen Literatur, Bd. IIT, Frei- 
burg i. Breisgau, 1912, 

Bartirot, P., La Littérature Grecque, Paris, 1905. 

Cuaist, W. von, Griechische Literaturgeschichte, Miinchen, 1913. 

CroiseT, M., Histoire de la Littérature Grecque, Paris, 1899. 

Jorpan, H., Geschichte der altchristlichen Literatur, Leipzig, 1911. 

LEsnanc, H, J., Essai sur l’enseignement des lettres profanes dans les pre- 
miers siécles de l’Kglise, Paris, 1852. 

Nirscut, J., Lehrbuch der Patrologie und Patristik, Bd. 2,149 ff., Mainz, 1883. 

Rogerr, M., L’Enseignement des lettres classiques d’Ausone a Alcuin, Thése, 
Paris, 1905. 

SusEmiaL, F'., Geschichte der griechischen Literatur in der Alexanderzeit, 
ate. 1891-1892. 

TixERont, J., Précis de Patrologie, Paris, 1918. 


b) BIOGRAPHICAL. 


Acresta, Apoui., Vita del propatriarca §. Basilio Magno, Messina, 1681. 

Autarp, P., Saint Basile, Paris, 1903. 

Baksrt, Fr., De S. Basilio Magno: Acta Sanctorum, Iunii 2, 807-958, Ant- 
verpiae, 1698, 

Bayuz, A., Saint Basile, archevéque de Césarée, Avignon, 1878. 

Dvucuesne, L., Histoire ancienne de l’Eglise, Paris, 1906. 

Eirenwwes, D., Blos τοῦ ἐν ἁγίοις πατρὸς ἡμῶν βασιλείου τοῦ Μεγάλου, Athens, 1881. 

Farrar, EF. W., Lives of the Fathers, Edinburgh, 1889. 

Frisser, I. Exzas, De Vita Basilii Magni, Dissertationes Historicae Theo- 
logicae, Groningae, 1828. 

Hzrrzpere, G. Fr., Die Geschichte Griechenlands unter dae Heresshatt 
der Romer, Bd. 3, 345ff., Halle, 1875. 

Kuosz, C. R. W., Hin Beitrag zur Kirchengeschichte. Basilins iar Grobe 
nach seinem Leben und seiner Lehre dargestellt, Stralsund, 1835. 

Maran, Pr., Vita S. Basilii Magni in Benedictine edition of St. Basil’s 
works, 3, XXXVII- ΟΧΟΠ; ‘alsa in Migne, Dari Graeca 29, 
V-CLXXVII. 

Smiru, R. T., Saint Basil the Great, Pokaan 1879. 

Tittemont, Mémoires pour servir 4 ]’Histoire Ecelésiastique des six pre- 
miers siécles, IX, 628-691, Paris, 1714. 


vi SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY 


J 
c) RHETORICAL 


Amerinaer, T. K., The Stylistic Influence of the Second Sophistic on the 
Panegyrical Sermons of St. John Chrysostom, Washington, 1921. 
Aristotetes, Ars Rhetorica ed. Ad. Roemer, Bibliotheca Teubneriana, 
Lipsiae, 1898. 

Arn, H. von, Leben und Werke des Dio von Prusa, Berlin, 1898. 

Bavumeart, H., Aelius Aristides als Reprasentant der sophistichen Rhetorik 
des zweiten Jahrhunderts der Kaiserzeit, Leipzig, 1874. 

Brass, F., Die attische Beredsamkeit, Leipzig, 1887-1893. 

— Antiphontis Orationes, Bibliotheca Teubneriana, Lipsiae, 1908. 

Cuatenet, A., La Rhétorique et son histoire, Paris, 1888, 

Ciceronis Rhetorica recognovit A. 8. Wilkins, IJ, Brutus, Oxonii, 1903. 

Deranaye, H., 5. I., Les Passions des Martyrs et les Genres Littéraires, 
Bruxelles, 1921. 

Dionysii Halicarnassei Opuscula ed. H. Usener et δ, Radermacher, Biblio- 
theca Teubneriana, Vol. II, Lipsiae, 1904. 

GuieneT, M., Saint Grégoire de Nazianze et la Rhétorique, Paris, 1911. 

Jirrner, H., De Polemonis Rhetoris vita, operibus, arte, Breslau, 1898. 

Lizanivs, Orationes ed. Reiske Vol. IV, Altenburg, 1791-1797. 

Méawmr, L., L’Influence de la seconde Sophistique sur l’oeuvre de Grégoire 
de Nysse, Paris, 1906. 

Navarre, O., Essai sur la Rhétorique Grecque avant Aristote, Paris, 1900. 

ΝΌΒΡΕΝ, E., Die antike Kunstprosa, 2 Bde., Leipzig, 1898. 

Platonis Opera recognovit Iohannes Burnet, Tomi V., Oxonii, 1903-1910, 

Rosertson, J. C., The Gorgianic Figures in Early Greek Prose, Balti- 
more, 1903. 

Rostnson, C. A., The Tropes and Figures of Isaeus, Princeton, 1901. 

Roupe, E., Der griechische Roman und seine Vorliufer, Leipzig, 1900. 

— Die asianische Rhetorik und die Zweite Sophistik, Rheinisches Mu- 
seum, XLI, (1886) 179ff. 

Scamwpt, W., Der Atticismus in seinen Hauptvertretern, Stuttgart, 1887. 

— Bericht iiber die Literatur aus den Jahren 1894-1900 zur Zweiten 
Sophistik, in Bursian’s Jahresbericht XXIX (1901). 

— Bericht tiber die Literatur aus den Jahren 1901-1904 zur Zweiten 
Sophistik, in Bursian’s Jahresbericht, XXXIV (1906). 

Sruter, Εἰ, G., A Study of Dinarchus, Transactions and Proceedings of the 
American Philological Association, Vol. 16, (1885), 120-132. 

Srescet, L., Rhetores Graeci ed. C. Hammer, Bibliotheca Teubneriana, 
III Vol. Lipsiae, 1894. 

Trunx, J., De Basilio Sermonis Attici Imitatore, Progr. Stutgardiae, 
1911. 

TrypHo, ed. Spengel, Rhetores Graeci. 

Vittemain, Tableau de l’éloquence chrétienne au IV® Siécle, Paris, 1850. 

Vo.xmann, R., Die Rhetorik der Griechen und Rémer, Leipzig, 1885. 

— Rhetorik und Metrik, in Miiller’s Handbuch der Altertumswissenschaft, 
Miinchen, 1901. 


SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY Vil 


Winamowirz-Mor.tienporr, U. von, Asianismus und Atticismus, Hermes, 
XXXV, (1900) 1-52. 

Werissensacn, J., De Eloquentia Patrum, Libri XIIT. eee Vindeli- 
corum, 1775. 


4) EDITIONS OF ST. BASIL. 


Kditio Princeps Basel, 1532; Venedig, 1535; Basel, 1551. 

Ducarvs, Fronto et Moretuvus, F., III Vol., Parisiis, 1618, 1638. 

Garnier, J. et Maran, P., Editio, ITI Vol. in fol., Parisiis, 1720-1730. 

De Sixner, L., Editio Parisina Altera, III Vol. Parisiis, 1839. 

Mienz, Reprint of the Garnier-Maran Text, Patrologia Graeca, Tomi XXIX 
to XXXII, Parisiis, 1857. 

Kapranipes, Reprint of Migne, Athens, 1900. 


e) SPECIAL WORKS ON ST. BASIL. 


Bessizres, Assi J., La Tradition manuscrite de la Correspondance de 
Saint Basile. The Journal of Theological Studies, XXI (1919), No. 81, 1. 

Crarx, W. K. L., St. Basil the Great, a Study in Monasticism, Cam- 
bridge, 1913. 

Derrrrart, R. J., St. Basil’s Letters, Introduction, vol. I. Loeb Classical 
Library. In manuscript. 

Fiaton, E., Etude historique et littéraire sur S. Basile, Nancy, 1864. 

Jackson, B., The Treatise De Spiritu Sancto, the Nine Homilies of the 
esaiaaknn: and the Letters of St. Basil the Great. Translation with 
notes, London, 1885. 

Morison, Εἰ. F., St. Basil and his Rule, Oxford, 1912. 

Rovx, L., Etude sur la prédication de Basile le Grand, Strasbourg, 1867. 

Scuirer, J., Basilius des Grofen Beziehungen zum Abendlande, Miinst®r 
i, W., 1909. 

Vasson, Saint Basile le Grand,ses oeuvres oratoires et ascétiques, Paris, 1894. 


᾿ 








PREFACE 


Since M. Puech proposed the question of the indebtedness of 
patristic eloquence to the contemporary sophistic in the Revue 
de synthése historique for June 1901, three dissertations have 
been published bearing directly on phases of that ample 
problem. M. Méridier has studied the influence of the Second 
Sophistic upon St. Gregory of Nyssa; Guignet has studied 
St. Gregory of Nazianzus in his contacts with the contemporary 
rhetoric; Father Ameringer, out of the vast bulk of St. John 
Chrysostom, has traced the sophistic influence on the style of 
the panegyrical sermons of that orator. The following study aims 
to furnish such a paragraph in answer to M. Puech’s question 
as will result from a careful study of the style of the 46 ser- 
mons of St. Basil that are found in the Benedictine edition. 

My study differs from theirs, however, in method, and to a 
slight degree in purpose. They have devoted their efforts largely 
towards establishing the fact of sophistic influence in their 
respective orators. I have been concerned more with the extent 
of that influence on St. Basil. It is true that the extent of 
influence is inextricably bound up with the fact of influence, 
but, had the extent of influence been their chief concern, they 
probably would have used a method differing somewhat from 
that which obtains among them. However this may be, my 
method is different. It is an attempt to make use of something 
declared by them to be highly desirable but not practicable 
in such studies, i. e. statistics. 

Guignet gives the case against the use of statistics.1 He 
objects to them because of the uncertain state of the patristic 
texts. Even if the present state of the text of Basil should 
finally call for radical changes, which the work of Bessiéres 2 





1 19, 
2 Abbé J. Bessiéres, La Tradition manuscrite de la eGeneupen dame de 
Saint Basile. The Journal of Theological Studies, Vol. XXI, 1919 ΠΤ 
installments, beginning No. 81, 1). 


Χ PREFACE 


and Deferrari? does not indicate, the variant statistics would 
not change the conclusions in this study because of the very 
pronounced tendencies which the statistics gathered from the 
present text reveal. Further on in his study Guignet‘ protests 
the futility of statistics in determining sophistic influence in 
the comparison. The same objection, if valid, applies to the 
metaphor as well. It is worth considering therefore at some 
length. Guignet’s objection may be stated somewhat as follows. 
The mere total of the comparisons will indicate the extent of 
profuseness in the use of the figure, and profuseness is a 
sophistic eccentricity. But such a total will not indicate 
precisely the sophistic profuseness, not necessarily the profuseness 
due to the sophistic manner of the times. The Fathers of the 
Fourth Century realized and acknowledged the utility of the 
comparison for illuminating the obscure.’ There will thus be 
much in such a total (how much is indeterminable) to be 
attributed to Christian inspiration, and not to the sophistic. 
Thus far Guignet. I do not think that Guignet’s objection is a 
valid one here. The studies which he himself has made, together 
with those of M. Méridier and Father Ameringer,® show that 
most of the comparisons of the two Gregories and Chrysostom 
“may be reduced to a limited number of stereotyped forms, 
slightly modified to suit the occasion”? and that these stereo- 
typed forms are characteristic of the sophists. The indefinite 
results alleged against a mere count may therefore be remedied 
by carefully classifying all the sophistic figures found under 
their proper heads. A comparison of the totals of the sophistic 
and non-sophistic categories will show us how often St. Basil 
resorted to genuinely sophistic categories. In any case, whether 
the disciple of the sophists or the Christian preacher and 
expounder is the dominating personality in these results 
interferes not at all with the value of the results themselves. If 
sophistic display is the leading motive that called forth a given 





3 St. Basil’s Letters, Vol. I, Loeb Classical Library. 

4 159, 

5 Cf. P. G. Gregory of Nyssa 45, 345A; 352 A; 585 D: Chrysostom ὅθ, 
165; 32; 57, 199. 

6 Cf. Méridier, 117; Guignet, 161; Ameringer, 69. 

7 Ameringer, 69. 


PREFACE xi 


comparison, then St. Basil is revealing his sophistic training. If 
the preacher's anxiety to clarify his point is the leading motive, 
then again St. Basil reveals himself the pupil of the sophists, 
employing familiar pagan devices to an anti-pagan purpose. 

Besides the evident value of statistics there is another 
consideration which makes their use really necessary in a 
study of this kind. The very strength of some sophistic figures 
impresses the mind of the reader so deeply that he is blinded 
to their possible infrequency, and the relative frequency of a 
given figure is always an index of sophistic influence, if the 
character of the figure is valued aright. It has been my 
purpose therefore to consider the manner of the figures found 
in St. Basil’s sermons and the frequency of each figure, dividing 
the statistics on a figure into appropriate groups where its 
nature seemed to demand it. From these two view-points, 
equally important in a study of the Second Sophistic, I have 
constructed my conclusions. 

In gathering statistics much circumspection has been necessary. 
As has been said above, the nature of each figure had to be 
taken into account. Three examples of arsis and thesis and 
three examples of prosopopoiia, for instance, are not equivalents 
in rhetorical value. Arsis is capable of many repetitions 
without becoming obtrusive, while prosopopoiia need recur 
only a very few times to become a very marked element of 
style. Figures also differ in the readiness with which they 
may be recognized as such. Arsis and thesis and rhetorical 
questions, for instance, have only to be seen to be justly 
accounted figures. In the Figures of Sound, however, much 
care is needed. In a language so highly inflected as the Greek, 
rhetorical design must be very obvious before one is justified 
in calling what appears to be a figure of sound truly such. 
‘To a lesser extent antithesis must be closely examined because 
of the antithetical bent of the Greek language. Metaphors 
too present some difficulties because of our meagre lexico- 
graphical knowledge of Fourth Century Greek. Because of 
the problem raised by these three figures it is sometimes said 
that rhetorical design must be evident in every apparent 
figure and that therefore the whole process of gathering 
figures is a purely, or highly, subjective one. To this I do not 


ΧΙ PREFACE 


agree. Such a view rests upon a misconception of the nature 
of the Sophistic. The Second Sophistic in its rhetorical aspect 
is not one phase of the rhetoric of the Empire. Contrariwise 
it includes all the rhetoric of its day. The term describes an 
epoch in the history of rhetoric, when narrowed to its rhetorical 
meaning. It includes the present and all of the past that has 
come down to it. Outside of the figures mentioned above, then, 
rhetorical design need not be established in every case. The 
form of the figure St. Basil derived from contemporary rhetoric 
and its heritage, regardless of any conscious purpose on his part. 

In this study, under Figures of Parallelism, names are 
employed not found in the progymnasmata or elsewhere. 
St. Basil’s alleged lack of preparation and its possible effect 
on the Figures of Parallelism have led me into these distinctions. 
These distinctions the results have justified I believe. 

Many figures included in this study go back to the Atheni- 
an law-courts. At the outset of this investigation it was 
thought worth while to keep in mind all the figures of rhetoric, 
so far as might be, even the unimportant. This seemed only 
consistent with the essential connection of the Sophistic with 
earlier epochs of rhetoric. There thus would be revealed any 
little rhetorical mannerism that Basil might possess, liable to 
be ignored in the exclusive consideration of the more usual 
figures. While the results in this small province have yielded 
little in proportion to the attention given it, while the results 
are almost negative in figures associated with the law-courts, 
yet this much is not without value as illustrating what Basil 
did not do, or what unusual device he sometimes used. Thus 
am I enabled to present his art more nicely and more PompLetoly 
than would otherwise be -possible. 

- Despite the uncertainties that may be due to the state of 
the text, to the exigencies of prose-rhythm, to personal 
predilection, I thought that scrupulous care would give an 
approximation in statistics which, coupled with a study of the 
manner of development of the figures themselves, would be 
decidedly worth while. In this I do not feel disappointed. 
Despite the lack of data on other orators and sophists of 
the time precise enough to allow for detailed comparisons, I 
have been able, by constant reviews of the text and by the 


PREFACE ΧΗΣ 


aid of general conclusions on other orators and sophists, to 
come to very definite conclusions on St. Basil’s use of most of the 
figures and, consequently, on the extent of influence exercised by 
pagan rhetoric on his homiletical style. These statistics are so 
pronounced in their testimony that even with a less detailed 
knowledge of the period than is actually available, I could 
arrive at positive conclusions. | 

Sophistic dialectic has not been treated in this study. 
Dialectic borders too dangerously on theological studies for a 
thorough study here, and the superficial account that I could 
give would be inconsistent with the character and purpose 
of this dissertation. Although many evidences of sophistic 
dialectic appear in the sermons, especially in the comparisons, 
so difficult a subject is here left to the thorough treatment 
of a special monograph. The question of prose-rhythm is so 
unsatisfactory and so extensive that rhythmical clausulae are 
also excluded. 

To explain fully the Second Sophistic I have prefixed . 
some account of its precursors. All the material used in 
the first chapter of this dissertation and much in the second 
chapter is familiar to students of rhetoric. An explanation 
of the Second Sophistic in English, however, seems highly 
desireable and such a narrative must necessarily include 
some account of the Sophistic’s precursors. Besides if an 
historical account always explains a movement, this is all the 
more true in the case of the Second Sophistic and its disciples, 
because of its attempt on its Attic side to cling exclusively 
to the traditions of the past. Moreover, my account of the 
development of rhetoric has led me to a definition of the 
Second Sophistic historically considered—a definition not 
given heretofore. 

The Benedictine text has been used. Migne is a very poor 
reprint of the Benedictine and contains many errors. 

The author wishes to express his gratitude to Dr. Roy 
Joseph Deferrari, Chairman of the Greek and Latin Departments 
at the Catholic University of America, who suggested the 
subject and directed its development. Thanks are also due 
to Dr. Romanus Butin 8. M. of the Catholic University for 
several valuable suggestions. 


BASIL 


330 circa. Born in Caesarea in Cappadocia, 
apparently. [Tillemont, 9, 628; Maran 1, 2; 
Allard in Dictionnaire de Theologie Ca- 
tholique, art. “Basile” conclude that 329 
is the year. Batiffol, 292, defends 331]. 
Studies in Neo-Caesarea under his father, 
in Caesarea in Cappadocia, and in Con- 
stantinople. 


351 circa. Goes to Athens. 


856 circa. Return to Caesarea. 

857 circa. Visit to Egypt, Palestine, Meso- 
potamia. 

358 circa. First retirement to Pontus. 


860 circa. Attends Council of Constantinople. 
362 circa. Ordained priest. Nine Homilies 


on the Hexaémeron. Homilies on the 
Psalms [Bardenhewer, 3, 148-9]. 


870 Bishop of Caesarea. 


879 January 1, Death. 


CHRONOLOGICAL 


RHETORICAL 


806 circa. Julian of Cappadocia begins lec- 
tures at Athens. 

$10 circa. Himerius born. 

314 Libanius born at Antioch. 

817 Themistius born. 


334-8 Libanius student at Athens. 


837 Themistius student at Athens. 


340 Prohairesius of Caesarea succeeds Julian 
of Cappadocia at Athens. 

841 Libanius opens his school at Constan- 
tinople. 


$44 circa. St. John Chrysostom born at 
Antioch. 


345 circa. Julian student at Constantinople. 
346 Libanius transfers school to Nicomedia. 


854 Libanius opens school at Antioch. 
355 Julian student at Athens Themistius 
member of Senate at Constantinople. 


357 Themistius at Rome. 


362 Himerius at Antioch. 


368 Himerius at Athens, 


388 circa. Death of Themistius. 
393 circa. Death of Libanius. 








TABLE 


POLITICAL 


828 Constantine sole Emperor. 


330 Dedication of new city of Constantinople. 


337 Death of Constantine. 
340 Death of Constantine II. Constans su- 
preme in the West. 


350 Assassination of Constans. Accession of 
Magnentius. 


353 Suicide of Magnentius. Re-union of em- 
pire under Constantius. 


861 Accession of Julian. 


863 Death of Julian. Accession of Jovian. 
364 Death ofJovian. Valentinian, emperor of 

the West. Valens, emperor of the Hast. 
865-6 Revolt of Procopius. 


375 Death of Valentinian. Gratian andValen- 
tinian II, emperors in the West. 

378 Revolt of Goths and death of Valens. 

379 Theodosius, emperor in the East. 


ECCLESIASTICAL 


325 Council of Nicaea. 


335 Council of Tyre. 
336 Death of Arius. ad 


341 Dedication Council of Antioch. 


848 circa. Council of Sardica. 


351 Council of Sirmium. 


857 Second Declaration of Sirmium. 
359 Council of Ariminum. Council of Seleucia.. 
360 Council of Constantinople. 


362 Eusebius consecrated Bishop ofCaesarea,. 


367 Council of Tyana. 
370 Death of Bishop Eusebius. 


371 Modestus and Valens vs. Basil. 
372 Gregory consecrated to see of Sasima 


381 Council of Constantinople. 


ABBREVIATIONS 


Hex. 1=— Homily on Hexaémeron 1 
” = ” ” ” 2 
” aa ” ” ” 3 
” as ” ” ” 4 
92 Ro ” ” ” 5 
” 6= ” ” ” 6 
” es ” ” ” 7 
” 8= ” ” ” 8 
» I= ” ” ” 9 

Ps = ΣΕ a Psalm 1 

” ἘΞ ” ” ” 7 
” 14 --- ” ” ” 14 
” 28 = ” ” ” 28 
” 29 = ” ” ” 29 
” 32 = ” ” ” 32 
” 33 = ” ” ” 33 
” 44 — ” ” ” 44 
” 45 = ” ” ” 45 
” 48 —= ” ” ” 48 
” 59 = ” ” ” 59 
” 61 = ” ” ΩΣ 61 
sy ee a Ἂ τ 114 


De Grat. Act. Homily De Gratiarum Actione. 

In Fam. et Siccit.— Homily In Famen et Siccitatem. 

Deus non est auct.= Homily Deus non est Auctor Malorum. 

Advers. Iratos = Homily Adversus Iratos. 

In Princip. Proverb. = Homily In Principio Proverbiorum. 

In Sanct. Baptisma — Homily In Sanctum Baptisma. 

In Princip. erat V.= Homily In Principio erat Verbum. 

Quod Mundanis. = Homily Quod Mundanis non Adhaerendum sit. 
Contra Sabellianos = Homily Contra Sabellianos, et Arium et Anomoeos. 





The number in parenthesis after the name of each sermon in the statistical 
tables refers to the number of lines occupied by the sermon in the Bene- 
dictine edition. 


CHAPTER I 
OUTLINE HISTORY OF GREEK RHETORIC! 


In iambic and elegiac poetry the reflective mind of Hellas 
first found extended literary expression. The passage from 
poetry to literary prose largely paralleled the progress of 
reflection. The fragments of the old philosophers, chrono- 
logically considered, show a long hesitation in abandoning the 
more familiar medium, poetry, for the more congenial medium, 
prose. In the field of narration was a like reluctance. From 
poetic legend to prose legend, from prose legend to historio- 
graphy, from historiography to history might be three chapters 
in an account of the advance of criticism. Narrative was 
passing from historiography to history, philosophy was already 
deep in a metaphysical conflict before oratory, as an art, began 
‘to develop among the Greeks. Eloquence abounded in the 
Homeric poems—of a kind unsystematic, and the property of 
of the gifted few. Natural eloquence was the weapon of talented 
demagogues in the early democracies, but oratory, known and 
studied as an art, and not merely admired as the offspring of 
natural fire and fluency, came to life in Greece only after the 
Persian Wars in a movement which may be called, on analogy 
with its descendant, the “First Sophistic.” 

This name may be applied to the whole of that curious in- 
_ tellectual revolution which profoundly influenced all intelligent 
Athenians living around 450 B.C. Its beginnings are bound 
up in the current problems of philosophy. Its opportunity is 
found in contemporary society and politics. Originally it 
includes all branches of knowledge—is a popular exposition 
of contemporary culture—a system of studies designed to make 





1 On the subject of Greek rhetoric, cf. especially Blass, Chaignet, 


Navarre, Norden. 
1 


_ 2. THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PATRISTIC STUDIES 


ἢ its devotees leaders in the state or at least ideal members 
of the state. In origin non-Athenian, it finds in the first city 
of the Greek world and under a democratic form of government 
conditions that make it eminently profitable as a profession 
but eminently narrow as an art. 

Prosperity came to Athens after the Persian wars; and with 
prosperity, leisure; and with leisure, a vague desire for “culture,” 
such as the Ionian Greeks of Asia had been developing since 
the Seventh century. This desire, confined not alone to Athens, 
forthwith created a class called sophists—men who proposed 
to give the people (or that part of the people who could pay 
for it) just exactly what they wanted in the way of σοφία. 
σοφία, which among the [onians had been largely given to 
speculation, now became a practical culture. All Greece was 
weary of the metaphysical tangle in contemporary philosophy. 
The hard-headed Athenians in particular welcomed the negative 
epistemology of Protagoras with its convenient repudiation of 
all research not immediately connected with practical life. 
The comprehensiveness of this program varied with the locality, 
but in Ionian Greece dialectic was its basis, sometimes combined 
with a wide variety of erudition; sometimes, with literary and 
grammatical studies. 

In Sicily meanwhile the first methodic study of persuasive’ 
discourse had been developed. In 465 B.C. the tyrants 
had been expelled and many lawsuits had arisen over their 
confiscations of property. Out of this experience came a 
theory of pleading first formulated and taught by Corax and 
his pupil Tisias. Caring little for style, their instruction 
concerned itself solely with the production of plausibility in 
speech. Commercial relations and consequent commercial 
disputes brought the art of Corax to Athens sometime before 
Gorgias’ arrival in 427 B.C.? : 

The practical turn which under-lay the Sophistic from the 
beginning soon centered its energies in the study of effective 
speech-making. The sophists, in responding to the desires of 
their rich and ambitious clients, found in contemporary philo- 
sophy materials suited to their purpose. Starting with the 





2 Navarre, 22. 


OUTLINE HISTORY OF GREEK SOR = ue “5.9 


tenet that all knowledge is relative, that the οἱ ea is 
appearance, they combine with it eristic, psychology, their own 
linguistic studies, and the practiced art of Sicily to form that 
science with which the name sophistry is generally associated. 

The Sophistic, then, in the very beginning developed one 
characteristic which never left it. It was born of the desire 
of the Athenians for instruction. It was opportunistic. It 
arose to eminence on a wave of philosophical reaction. It 
emphasized oratory more than other branches of knowledge 
because the popular government and the popular will placed 
the emphasis there. It elaborated, adorned, and embellished; 
employing other sciences and arts only in so far as they’. 
furthered the art stamped by popular approval. Other 
movements, literary and philosophical, have been conditioned 
by the popular will; popular approval was the very life-blood 
of the Sophistic. 

In practice it was a school of Seiden manifesting supreme 
indifference to truth, impatient of research, anxious to persuade 
above all things because in effective persuasion lay the immediate 
means to political power. Thus, from the first, the Sophistic 
was superficial. It aimed to please. It gradually pushed aside 
matter to worship form. Hence, the invention of all those 
devices that perfected and beautified eloquence; hence, further 
on in its course, that jingle of words and ideas that degraded 
it. The sensitive ear of the Greek, once indulged in the 
beauties of form, must be pampered ever after. He must 
never grow weary of ingenious display and musical combi- 
nations. Hence the progress in artificiality that marked the 
course of the Sophistic—the continuous parade of form-device 
rather than the elaboration of matter. 

Protagoras of Abdera, the first leading sophist, specialized 
on the teaching of eristic and founded Greek grammatical 
science. The Sicilian Gorgias, the second sophist to appear 
in Athens, also included subtle reasoning in his curriculum, 
but he devoted himself mainly to a beauty of expression 
attained through the conscious study of vocabulary and 
sentence-structure. Despite his Sicilian-lonic origin, he 
adopted the Attic dialect—the shrewd sophist’s infallible in- 


stinct for the trend of the times—but an Attic made from the 
1* 


a THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PATRISTIC STUDIES 


sonorous ete of poets and from new words created for fine 
shades of meaning. With Gorgias Attic Oratory really begins. 
From his school flow influences that are never effaced in all 
the changes to which Greek rhetoric was subsequently subject. 

The teaching of rhetoric persisted from the Fifth century 
down. Social and political conditions of succeeding ages at 
times repressed its practical manifestation in oratory, but on 
its academic side it was always a discipline of the schools. 
The sophistic profession lasted as long as antiquity. 

The First Sophistic as a distinct literary and intellectual 
revolution may be said to end with the close of the Fifth 
Century with Gorgias, Antiphon, and their schools. By that 
time the Sophistic has become definitely rhetorical. The Fourth 
Century Sophistic is but a continuation of the Fifth Century 
tradition—the theoretical training of men for the practical 
use of oratory in the struggles of the agora. 

Of the Ten Attic Orators, Antiphon alone belongs entirely 
to the Fifth Century. Of the rest, Andocides, Lysias, Isaeus, 
and Isocrates overlap the two centuries, while Demosthenes, 
Aeschines, Hyperides, Lycurgus, and Dinarchus belong to the 
Fourth. The three types of oratory which developed in Greece 
grew to perfection in succession. Judicial oratory, cultivated 
first in Sicily, attained its highest perfection with Lysias. The 
oratory of declamation, inaugurated by Gorgias, reached its 
high mark in Isocrates. Political oratory, out of the turmoil 
of the latter Fourth century, was at its best in Demosthenes. 
Τὸ 15 sufficient here to call attention to the exquisite artistry 
of their work; the polished products of sophistic training, 
inborn genius, and mighty, or at least moving, subjects. Lysias 
studied in Sicily. Isocrates was probably the disciple of 
Gorgias. Under Isocrates the long periodic sentence was 
developed, and declamatory oratory looked to grand themes 
and glorious occasions for its display. He followed his master 
Gorgias in his efforts to ennoble diction, but produced a 
revolution in Greek prose by the use of the purest Attic, by 
smoothly-running rhythm, by the absolute avoidance of the 
hiatus, by substituting variety and flexibility for the stiff 
artistry of his master. 

The last Attic orator worthy of the name and the first to 


OUTLINE HISTORY OF GREEK REETORIO . : : 5 : 


suffer from a lack of great national subjects was E Wawetias 


of Phaleron, who grew to maturity during the Macedonian 
ascendency and later flourished at Ptolemaic Alexandria. He 
was an Atticist of the purest type and a pupil of Theophrastus, 
but even these assurances did not save his art from the 
charges of slackness and effeminacy. With him Attic oratory 
came to an end, Athens lost her liberty and with her liberty, 
the only support of civil eloquence. There was no longer 
political power in the spoken word. Judicial oratory became 
a mere barrister’s' trade. Political oratory was crushed under 
the ascendency of Philip and Alexander. Epideictic oratdéry 
went back to the schools and class-room exercises to await 
another hey-day. Rhetoric did not die. It was merely eclipsed 
for a while. 

From about 300 B.C. the decline of oratory goes hand-in- 
hand with the extinction of Attic life and liberty, and the 
darkening of purely Greek originality. What the Grecian 
language gained in territory, it lost in content. The cos- 
mopolitan thought of Alexandrian times is utterly non-Greek, 
although the Alexandrians did their best to preserve the 
Greek ideal. This period of oratorical decadence merits our 
attention, for in it are contained the elements that join the 
Second Sophistic with the First. In an age devoted to artistry 
and erudition, the rhetorical tradition lives on in the schools, 
developing characteristics that explain historically features of 
later Hellenic eloquence. 

The rhetorical activity in the schools now developed a form 
of school-declamation that reveals significantly the course of 
rhetoric after the death of Alexander—the diatribe. We see 
its fore-runner in the dialogue; in those passages of Plato, 
for instance, where Socrates abandons his customary dialectic 
and introduces a feigned antagonist or a personified thing 
with whom or which he disputes. Such introductions and 
conversations are characteristic forms of the diatribe of 
Alexandrian times. The declaimer, reciting this school- 
declamation, places himself and a feigned party in place of 
two persons speaking in dialogue. With this feigned party, 





3 Cf. Protagoras, 352 ff.; Crito, 50 A ff.; Phaedo, 874; Centiphon, fr. 131. 


6 ‘THE CARHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PATRISTIC STUDIES 


τ δε ἢ δ ‘declaimer engages in a logomachia. The diatribe of the 


schools was nothing but dialogue in the form of declamation. 
We observe here one characteristic of the Alexandrian period— 
the prosaic present harking back to a brilliant past for 
suggestion and inspiration. 

In style the diatribe was not so intimately connected with the 
glorious past. Its diction was slovenly. In it the period 
created by Isocrates was dissolved into short sentences. In the 
emptiness of the times it took to moralizing; pouncing upon 
the follies of men, reprehending them or ridiculing them. In 
{18 declamatory censoriousness it often hit upon a pathetic 
tone which now reminds one of comedy and now of tragedy. 
From this came the second characteristic of its style, a leaning 
towards theatrical pathos. This form of school-exercise became 
typical of declamations and blended in the later rhetorical 
schools with Asianism, an eccentric offshoot of the old-time 
rhetoric that developed in another part of the Orient after 
the breaking-up of Alexander’s empire. 

The dissolution of Alexander’s empire saw political oratory, 
the tradition of Demosthenes, crushed along with the political 
life of the Greeks; forensic oratory, the tradition of Lysias, 
pursuing a useful, quiet career in the Athenian Law-courts; 
and declamatory oratory, the tradition of Isocrates and 
Gorgias, forced back into the schools. For a while this last- 
named ventured forth in the form of epideictic and panegyric 
speeches; then it became a tradition in the schools. Its active 
practice passed from Athens to the flourishing, populous 
cities of Asia Minor, now again immensely rich in the new 
order of things. 

To appreciate thoroughly that literary movement in history 
called. “Asianism,” it is necessary, first of all, to recall 
characteristics of the peoples of Asia Minor; for eloquence is 
an immediate expression of the national character. Aristotle 
traced the non-serious character of Sicilian diction from the 
ingenious, waggish originality of the Sicilian people. In Attic 
eloquence the moderateness and gracefulness of the Athenians 
is hypostasized. Only by reviewing the characteristics of the 
Asiatics is it possible to understand a school of eloquence so 
completely at odds with the Attic. 


- OUTLINE HISTORY-OF GREEK ΒΗΒΤΟΒΙΟ,, 7 


In Asia arose those orgiastic cults whose passionate music 
was at once an expression and an aggravation of Asiatic 
hollowness and effeminacy. The dithyrambic songs of Asia 
were soft and sad melodies typical of a national enervation 
deep-seated and long-established. The very prevalence of the 

soft sound “e” in the Ionian dialect of Asia is sometimes 
called an index of the softness of the people who used it. 
Protestantism in art, superficiality, ages of luxury, intellectual 
energy, a habit of dabbling in philosophy, the mild climate of 
the Eastern Aegean conspired to produce a softness and 
hollow pathos in Asiatic character that was re-echoed in 
Asiatic eloquence. 

An Ionian from Sicily, Gorgias, had first dislodged nature 
by fashion. Now Ionians from Asia Minor took a further 
step along the same path. They neglected the strict laws of 
rhetorical τεχνή and, in place of the regularity hitherto existing, 
substituted personal choice. But with all its individualism 
Asiatic eloquence falls readily enough into two classes of 
style, corresponding to the two sides of the Asiatic character:— 
its effeminacy and wantonness are revealed in the sensuality 
and voluptuousness of a style whose chief characteristics are 
elegant short sentences and soft rhymes; its emptiness, its 
tendency to inflation, stand out in the pompousness of the 
other style. Although both these styles appear with the 
beginnings of Asianism, the elegant style is more pronounced 
in the man who is generally known as the “archegetes” of 
Asianism, Hegesias of Magnesia. 

Dionysius of Halicarnassus‘ dates Asianism from the death 
of Alexander the Great. Hegesias was flourishing not long 
after this event. The elegant style, as represented by Hegesias, 
contained the following innovations :— 

1. The long, flowing period of Isocrates and Demosthenes 
was abolished. Short, choppy sentences were substituted. 
This feature became an important factor in the history of 
style. 

2. These short sentences were so constructed that every 

sentence had a marked cadence, oft-times of a lascivious 





4 De Antiquis Oratoribus 1 ff. 


aa THE, CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PATRISTIC STUDIES 


character. Hegesias was over-fond of the ditrochaeus (— V —v) 
at the end of the sentence.’ In order to attain the desired 
rhythm, the Asiatics did not scruple to employ expletives and 
to use word-arrangements unwarranted from any standpoint, 
linguistic or practical. These rhythmical speeches, recited in 
a modulated voice, frequently took on the regularity of a chant. 

3. The phraseology in every case put a premium on the 
exceptional. Meaningless metaphors and insipid circumlocutions 
abounded. ἡ κατ᾽ οὐρανὸν μερίς, for instance, was used for simple 
οὐρανός. Verbal witticisms found frequent employment. Hegesias 
made the Olynthians, on the occasion of the destruction of 
their city, say; “ὄνομα κατελάβομεν πόλιν καταλιπόντες," and Alexander, 
at the destruction of Thebes: “τὸν γὰρ μέγιστα φωνήσαντα τόπον 
ἄφωνον ἡ συμφορὰ πεποίηκε," 

These eccentric characteristics indicate from what elements 
of the old heritage Asianism drew. The short, equi-syllabled, 
carefully-measured, strongly-rhythmed sentences; the verbal 
witticisms readily assuming an antithetical form; the highly 
poetic words; the audacious metaphors—all are found earlier 
in Gorgias and his comrades. 

The Second Asiatic style is thus described by Cicero:§ 
“aliud genus est non tam sententiis frequentatum quam verbis 
volucre atque incitatum, quali est nunc Asia tota, nec flumine 
solum orationis sed etiam exornato et facto genere verborum; 
in quo fuit Aeschylus Gnidius et meus aequalis Milesius 
Aeschines, in eis erat admirabilis orationis cursus, ornata 
sententiarum concinnitas non erat.” This pompous output of 
rhetorical agility has been described as a dithyramb in prose’, 
a strange, ranting kind of grandiosity which finds expression 
in a lofty style and yet withal is not outspoken. Specimens 
of this style’ teem with words highly poetic or newly constructed; 
the hiatus is avoided with a severity that tries to outdo Iso- 
crates; the position of the words is completely at the mercy 
of the rhythm. 





5 Cf. Cicero, Brutus 286; Dionysius, De Compositione Verborum, 
Chapter XVIII. 

6 Brutus, 325. 

7 Norden J, 145. 

8 For examples cf. Norden I, 141—145. 


OUTLINE HISTORY OF GREEK RHETORIC 9 


Distinct threads of the Second Asiatic style lead back to 
the old sophistic prose. It is not that the rhetors of Asia 
deliberately chose certain of the earlier sophists as models, 
but these Asiatics were pressed by their own predispositions 
into the display of passionate pathos and fantastic grandness. 
They used the weapon already forged for such expression by 
Gorgias, Hippias, and Alcidamus—bacchantic, dithyramb-like 
prose, varying in its degree of abuse according to the personality 
employing it. One needs but to compare the turbulent, dithy- 
rambic bombast in the speech of Hippias? and the insufferable 
flourishing in the fragments of Alcidamus1° with the remains 
of the Asiatic style, both First and Second,!! to appreciate the 
connection of Asianism with the old sophistic prose. Asianism 
was the school of Gorgias and his fellows descended upon 
and adapted to the times and temper of Third Century 
Asia Minor. 

Asianism spread so rapidly that by 300 B.C., or only 23 years 
after Alexander’s death, it prevailed in rhetoric. In so short 
a period of time it could not have developed so completely. 
The germs had been there since Gorgias’ day and in the 
character of the Asiatic Greeks. When Demosthenes was 
still delivering his Philippics, Asianism was gathering force. 
With the loss of liberty and forensic opportunity the 
tradition of Gorgias picked up its belongings and went to 
Ionia where an effete, superficial people welcomed it and 
moulded it to their own sensuous pattern. One must not get 
the impression that Asianism went blazing through the world 
soon after its triumph in the field of rhetoric. The Alexandrian 
Age was a learned age primarily, and rhetoric was under an 
eclipse. It lived in schools throughout the Greek world even 
as the Classics live in modern schools—as a discipline of 
education. It flourished quietly in Asia Minor and gathered 
strength in the rest of the world as the luxury and leisure of 
Alexandrian days drew men from the realities of existence 


“= and made the Hellenic world progressively superficial. With 





9. Plato, Protagoras, 336 ff, 
10 Aristotle, Rhetoric, ITI, 3. 
11 Norden, I, 185—139, 141—145; Susemihl II, 448—516, 


10 THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PATRISTIC STUDIES 


the coming of prosperity to the later Roman republic, the 
Romans flocked to Asia Minor for instruction. For a short 
time this show-oratory was transplanted to Rome, but unable 
to cope with the problems of the Republic, it withdrew to the 
East. With the coming of the Empire, however, and the loss 
of liberty of speech at Rome, Asianism swept over the world 
of culture, feeding on those elements of social and political 
degeneration that had fostered its growth in Asia Minor. By 
the middle of the First Century A.D., Ephesus, Smyrna, 
Miletus, and Mytilene were become world-centers for the in- 
struction of rhetoric, and the sophist was a great economic 
asset to his city. But in the full tide of its new success, the 
extravagant excesses of Asianism brought to a head a reaction 
which had been gathering long before. 

Formal Asianism is dated from the death of Alexander, 
or from around 300 B.C. It had run its course about a century 
before a counter-current was distinctly felt. Shortly after 
200 B.C. that reaction set in known as Atticism to literary 
history. And yet its beginnings were not so much a natural 
reaction from an extreme as a natural love for the old Attics 
and all their works. Asianism, despite its extravagance, was 
not dispersed enough in the beginning, and national disintegration 
and Alexandrian softness had not spread far enough to awaken 
that violent recoil which these characteristics afterwards caused. 
The learned Alexandrian Age lived on the products of classical 
Greece. The germs of an Atticistic reaction were bound up 
in the very tissue of Alexandrian times. μίμησις was the watch- 
word—imitation of those creative epochs that ended with 
Demetrius of Phaleron. In its beginnings Atticism was probably 
unconscious of its reactionary character. It proceeded almost 
necessarily from that classical movement which, as a result of 
the exertions of the great savants at the courts of the Greek 
Orient, spread to every province of literature. That at 
Alexandria, where men had so sentimental an interest in the 
old Attic poets, men should have ignored the old Attic 
orators is unthinkable. In the beginning then the extremes 
of one movement did not call forth the other. There was 
nothing of propaganda about them. The courts of Alexandria 
and Pergamus applied themselves passionately to that archaic- 


OUTLINE HISTORY OF GREEK ΒΗΕΤΟΒΙΟ.. 11 


classical tendency that featured all their intellectual activities. 
The Asiatics moulded the heritage of Gorgias into the natural 
expression of a brilliant, frivolous people. About 200 B.c. their 
purposes for the first time formally cross when Agatharchides of 
Alexandria and Neanthes of Pergamus attacked Asiatic rhetoric. 

About the middle of the First Century B.C. this reaction, 
by means of which uniformity of rule took the place of indi- 
vidual preference and Attic moderation took the place of 
unbridled emotion, had gained the victory in the learned 
circles at least. Asianism, that “drunken,” “frenzied,” “sick,” 
“vulgar,” “whorish” eloquence, in the words of its opponents, 
was pronounced the worst of literary and linguistic abuses. 
The Atticists believed that they possessed the exact pattern 
of the Attic manner. In this it may be seen that the reaction 
against Asianism in its developed form was only partially a . 
protest against the violation of good taste: sentiment was also 
a factor—a sighing for the glories of the past. 

Asianism did not die out under these attacks. Asianism 
had an interior authorization. It was the natural expression 
of a people, no matter how superficial they might be. Its 
existence was in accord with the highest law of literary 
development, the law of continuous progress. Whether this 
progress was for better or for worse militates not at all 
against its authority. This interior sanction Atticism did not 
have. It sprang from a learned antiquarianism. It grew on 
the excesses of Asianism. It finally triumphed because the 
literature became dominantly antiquarian. But in its triumph 
Asianism had a part, as we shall see. And pure Asianism 
still continued to be cultivated long after Atticism had become 
the vogue. For it had an interior authorization which could 
only fail with a change of taste in the people who first 
fashioned it. 

A long war now followed between the two movements. By 
the time of the empire these two stylistic tendencies were 
clearly differentiated. The Atticists were properly enough 
called of ἀρχαῖοι and the Asiatics, of νεώτεροι. Each of these 
two schools had gradations. Among the Atticists Demosthenes 
held the highest place as an orator and Plato rather than 
Jsocrates became the model for the panegyric style. Even 


12 THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PATRISTIC STUDIES 


the historians copied the old patterns; Xenophon, Herodotus, 
Thucydides, and in extreme cases even Hecataeus. There 
were thus all variations from the Moderates to the Hyper- 
Atticists. The modernistic Asiatics were all of them influenced 
by the new rhetoric, but differed in the measure wherewith 
they abandoned themselves to it. The extremists were veritable 
continuators of the old Gorgian “Sophistic” with all its Asiatic 
out-growths. The most temperate wrote in the Asiatic style, 
but restrained themselves from its degeneracy. A _ third 
group even sought to compromise between the old and the 
new styles. To this last group belonged the better represen- 
tatives of what became the Second Sophistic. 

All this time Asianism had been practiced in the East and, 
upon the restoration of peace under Augustus, it enjoyed great 
popularity. If anything the study of rhetoric became more 
superficial. The Asiatics swarmed through the Orient, putting 
practice before theory and facility before taste. In the peace 
and leisure which began to settle over world-society in the 
latter half of the First Century A. D., these traditional 
exercises first awoke to a quickened intellectual life and took 
on a new brilliance in the rich commercial Greek cities of 
Asia; especially at Smyrna, Ephesus, Miletus, and Mpyti- 
lene. Important orators and oratorical teachers came for- 
ward to whom auditors and disciples streamed. Mutual 
commercial jealousies ages old now found a new opportunity, 
and the Greek cities of Asia strove to outdo one another in 
in the splendor and fame of their schools. To dabble in 
rhetoric became the fashion and passion of this rich and idle 
people. To their schools came men for instruction from all 
parts of the world. It was the extravagance that attended 
the second revival of Asianism that produced so violent a 
reaction in Atticism. At the juncture of the First and Second 
Centuries A.D., Quintilian and Pliny the Younger raised the 
banner of classicism at Rome. They gathered together all the 
pent-up protests and archaistic tendencies that had come 
down from Alexandrian times and, drawing new strength from 
the ever-increasing abuses of Asianism, began to strive for a 
return to the essentials of rhetoric and a study of classic 
models in other fields. Disgust at the Asiatic excesses now 


OUTLINE HISTORY OF GREEK RHETORIC 13 


fostered a tendency which led straight back to the golden 
days of Attic culture; a wide-spread worship of Attic purism 
and everything connected therewith. 

As a preliminary to understanding why archaistic Atticism 
could make headway against modernistic Asianism, it is well 
to recall at this point the divorce between the language of the 
courts and the language of the people which Alexandrian days 
had brought about. The higher Alexandrian poetry, through 
its formal, superficial, pretentious treatment of even popular 
materials, had produced a cleft between it and the common 
people. The literature of early Greece was essentially popular. 
But when Atticism became more and more the vogue, the 
artistic prose drew away from the people with a romanticized 
and learned superciliousness which later became the main- 
spring of Byzantine literature. The people became more and 
more themselves for themselves. They became resigned to 
influences essentially distinct from contemporary culture. 
Fostered mainly in the court circles and in circles equally 
learned emanating from the courts, the literary ideals of the 
time were peculiarly adapted to the encouragement of Atticism. 
This style-ideal, therefore, finally carried its point. It produced 
a fateful dualism between the language of literature and that 
of everyday life which has endured to the present day. Atticism, 
like Alexandrianism generally, was the language of books, the 
natural expression of sterility. It was an artistic mimesis; 
archaistic collections of literary reminiscences patched-up and 
repaired with the help of purists. This forcing back of the 
literary language for several centuries was not accomplished 
without varying degrees of violence to good taste. Thus many 
authors of the time threw poetic expressions and phrases 
profusely about because they were Attic and stood in the 
lexica. Atticism gradually grew down to and into the Empire, 
when the revival of Asianism gave it its opportunity. All 
literary norms were now set up at court, the center of absolute 
authority. Atticism was favored there, and thus the imperial 
patronage reinforced the possibilities presented by the excesses 
of Asianism. : 


CHAPTER I 
THE NEW OR SECOND SOPHISTIC?! 


The world of Hadrian and the Antonines was a peaceful 
world. Its quiet was rarely disturbed. Greece beckoned men 
as the fountain-head of culture. Northern Italy afforded 
pleasant landscapes for country homes. The charms of 
Athens, Naples, Rome were the mainsprings of a pleasing 
cosmopolitanism. Greeks lived in Rome and in the provinces. 
The emperors regularly courted the favor of Grecian authors, 
caused them to dedicate their works to them, appointed them 
as secretaries and as tutors of their children. Men turned their 
eyes backward and over the prosaic present was spun the 
web of a brilliant past. ' 

The conflict between the old and the new styles proceeded 
with the old style in the ascendency. But between the extremes 
of Asianism and Atticism, at the beginning of the Second 
Century A. D., a third intermediate course developed. In a 
sense the Second Sophistic was Asianism crowned with Atticism. 
the reduction of Asiatic exuberance to the discipline of Atticized 
grammar; the mingling of incompatible with incompatible; a 
brilliant hodgepodge in which Atticism dominated, but Atticism 
permeated with the rhetorical fireworks of Asia. Hadrian ~ 
found pleasure in the works of Ennius, and then composed in 
the style of the novelli poetae. This was a far cry from the 
Fifth Century B.C., but it was probably the best compromise 
that could be struck between the desire to be Attic and the 
Asiatic temper of the day. 

As far as oratory is concerned, the Second Sophistic may 
be described as the epideictic show-oratory of Asia upon which 





1 On the New or Second Sophistic, ef. Norden I, 351—391, Schmid I 27#; 
Rohde 310 ff; Meridier, 7—47: Susemihl, II 448—516; Arnim, 4—114. 


THE NEW OR SECOND SOPHISTIC 15 


a romantic Atticism had been super-imposed. It is very 
doubtful whether this Atticism alone could have developed 
the astounding parade-speeches of the Second Sophistic. The 
Atticists were vain enough for such a venture, but their vanity 
would probably have found an outlet in written discourses. 
The virtuoso-declaimer is a product of Asia Minor. 

But it is an error to confine the Second Sophistic to oratory 
or style. It is because all its exertions are subordinated to 
this higher one of style and because of its traditional connection 
with the old sophistic art-prose that one may make this mistake. 
It seizes and conquers wider fields. It pursues all branches 
of culture in speech and written discourse, religion and art 
and habits of life, that seem to revive the idealized past. It even 
gives an impetus to the old religion in the Second Century A. D. 
by artificially awakening old forms of faith and worship. Neo- 
Platonism, the fairest product of this reactionary religious 
phase, shares a characteristic common to the whole Sophistic:’ 
it is too burdened with all the heritage of Greek literature 
and culture. 

The Second Sophistic, so far as it is concerned with science, 
without producing anything new, lives on the treasures of 
Alexandrian research. It owes its abundance of Attic purisms 
solely to the philology extant in Alexandrian traditions. Thus 
it is easy to understand how many Hellenistic elements crept 
into, or remained in, this classicized culture. 

The important position enjoyed by the Sophistic in the time 
of the Empire is almost too much for the modern mind. But 
if we try to transpose ourselves back into the feelings of a 
company which had nothing better to do than to discourse, 
which saw the accepted intellectual amusement in the charm 
which the spoken word exercised upon the ear, which possessed 
a considerably higher average of culture than is found today; 
which was predisposed by long prosperity, progressive 
degeneration, and traditional rhetorical training to welcome 
the show-oratory of revived Asianism, which inherited from 
the Alexandrian age a sentimental veneration for Periclean 
Athens, then our surprise vanishes. 

In the newly awakened school life of the Second Century, 
the Sophists assume leading positions. Besides their school- 


16 THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PATRISTIC STUDIES 


courses, they hold travel-lectures—not as the old sophists, 
for objective instruction, but solely as a medium of display. 
Thus they execute a carefully polished parade-speech upon 
an imaginary subject from classical times. Improvisations are 
offered on subjects which the audience suggests. At times 
two sophists come to an ἀγών in such exercises. The delivery, 
in voice and gesticulations, is thoroughly theatrical and 
exercises even upon an audience knowing no Greek a strange 
fascination. 

On the other hand, sophists gradually rise to occupy public of- 
fices in communities and at court. From the fees of pupils, from 
the steady municipal or civil salary for their teaching activity, 
from special privileges showered upon them by the emperors, 
enormous incomes come to them. The more the rhetorical 
activity penetrates the center of intellectual life, the higher 
becomes the social position of the rhetorical professors. Their 
munificence manifests itself variously in foundations and 
donations, public buildings, and festivals. Even in their philan- 
thropy vanity and a desire for display move them more than 
actual social needs. 

Thus while Asianism and Atticism still flow along as two 
distinct streams, their side-currents mingle to form in the 
time of Trajan a river whose sweep in an increasing degree 
becomes the master-current down to the close of antiquity. The 
brilliancy, the artificiality, the long-developed parade-speech 
of Asia Minor crossed with the romantic yearnings of decadent, 
subjugated Greece for a taste of her former glories—men 
forgetting that the glories of Greece arose from the strife of 
real life; that their imitation of these glories depended upon 
the laborious exactness of Alexandrian research; that research, 
however exact, is a record, not a reality. 

We can understand, then, how these people with all their 
energy and brilliancy went to such extremes. Life was so 
orderly, the administration of the provinces so strict and 
excellent, the activities of the cultured classes so circumscribed, 
the world so artificial that people, starving for self-expression, 
went mad. Kept from action, they concentrated on form, and 
wealth of phrase and poverty of thought presented the illusion 
of a pure Attic that was always a phantom of the study-room. 


THE NEW OR SECOND SOPHISTIC 17 


The reformed oratory of the Asiatics had certainly an object 
noble and honorable enough and a field useful and serious 
enough for its legitimate development in legal trials, municipal 
and provincial business, and serious lectures. But to this 
matter of fact field it could not confine itself. The sentimental, 
imaginative, repressed Hellenist, in looking back and longing 
for Greek eloquence in her hey-day, also longed for the mighty 
occasions that had called forth the Philippics of Demosthenes, 
and these mighty occasions were not to be had in the prosperous, 
well- governed Second Century. Since the mighty occasions 
did not exist, he did the next best thing. He imagined them 
in his intense desire to become a new Demosthenes, a new 
Isocrates, a new Thucydides, a new Herodotus. So he combated 
tyrants dead four hundred years, mourned over the fall of 
cities which were enjoying a second lease of life, lashed and 
tore and raved about in an oratorical Utopia before leisurely 
audiences who came as to the theater. Oratory became a 
theatrical fiction, an empty pageant that strove more and more 
to dazzle as it became less and less a novelty. In their 
improvising the sophists oft-times trotted out on parade well- 
decked common-places previously prepared and everywhere 
applicable. By rapidly linking these together and with the 
proper voice and gestures they convinced their hearers that 
this was the way that Demosthenes damned Philip or Lysias 
lashed Eratosthenes. 

The Sophistic had two periods of brilliancy, separated from 
each other by a period of eclipse. The first floruit extended 
from Hadrian or Trajan to Gordianus III. After the latter’s 
reign all Greek culture for almost a century was jeopardized 
by the stirring of political strife: The second period of 
brilliance begins with Constantine and endures to the end of 
antiquity. The historian of the earlier period is the second 
Philostratus; of the latter, Eunapius. Their biographies are 
our only compensation for the great losses in artistic prose 
literature of these times. Of most of the Sophists, nothing has 
come down to us and several of the most celebrated are for 
us mere names. In the canon of the Ten Sophists, corresponding 
to the number of the canonical Attic orators, were placed Dio 
Chrysostom, Nicostratus, Polemo, Herodes Atticus, Philostratus, 

2% 


18 THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PATRISTIC STUDIES 


Aelius Aristides, and probably Libanius, ‘Themistius, Himerius, 
and Eunapius. 

Despite its extravagances, the Second Sophistic was of 
incalculable value. By it the tradition of the old classical 
Greek literature was conserved down and past the Fourth 
Century in the schools of rhetoric where Basil, Gregory, and 
Chrysostom studied. It made for a purer Atticism. It 
preserved many classics which would otherwise have perished. 
Hardly a line of Aristophanes would. now be available, had 
not the sophists considered him a classic. On the other hand, 
witness the mutilated condition of the immensely popular 
Menander, whom the sophists passed by as non-classical. 

The most curious result of the Second Sophistic is that it 
furnished the ground-work for the romance. The sophists, in 
their striving for over-nicety, drew upon the gorgeous diction 
of the Alexandrian poets,—the elegy, idyll, toy-epic. To furnish 
a new setting for their oratorical display they frequently 
borrowed the amorous themes of Alexandrian poetry—laudatory 
speeches of gods and heroes, intricate descriptions of pastoral 
scenes, roses, hyacinths, nightingales, swans, muses, swallows, 
flutes, rivers, springs, the laurel, the sun, the stars, the Nile, 
works of art. Averse to treating practical subjects and bent 
upon stirring the emotions and imagination, they introduced 
themes of a passionate, violent, or bloody nature. The rhetors 
gloated over scenes portraying the wildest conflicts of unbridled 
passion and violence and over themes of a highly pathetic, sen- 
timental, even suggestive turn; varying these at times with 
accounts of imaginary long travels involving a vast display of 
geographical allusion. From these discourses on seduCtions, 
rapes, separations, attacks of pirates, recognitions, the Greek 
mind acquired a taste for improbable adventures and multiplied 
incidents and conflicts extraordinary. The long love-romance 
was the result of a union of fabulous travels with all the hair- 
raising incidents of adventurous love-stories. 

From erotic themes borrowed by the Sophistic the rhetors 
developed the fictitious love-letter—a very suitable vehicle for 
the portrayal of excited love-passion and the author’s skill. 
These love-letters were a recognized convention of later Greek 
novels. Indeed they played the major role in many novels, the 


THE NEW OR SECOND SOPHISTIC 19 


love-plot being a mere framework whereon the sophist displayed 
all the extravagances of the Sophistic in epistolary elegance. 

Of the three periods of the Sophistic, the third, beginning with 
Constantine, has a special interest for us. The representative 
sophists of this period are Libanius, Himerius, Themistius, and 
Julian of Cappadocia. Although it was diffused through all the 
provinces of the East and officially established in the imperial 
capitol at Byzantium, Athens, where rhetorical training had 
continued from the days of Gorgias, was the chief center of the 
movement. Libanius, the most celebrated Sophist of the time, 
the teacher of Basil, Gregory, and John Chrysostom, wrote that 
“Athens and Antioch held aloft the torch of rhetoric; the former 
illuminating Europe, and the latter, Asia.” At the University of 
Athens Basil, Gregory of Nazianzus, and Gregory of Nyssa were 
fellow-students. 

By the end of the Fourth Century Athens had totally declined, 
and with it declined the Sophistic. Though historically bound 
up with paganism, the advent of the first Christian emperors 
did not injure the exterior condition of the sophists. Of the 
Emperor Julian, with his pagan leanings, the friends of sophistry 
entertained high hopes. After Julian’s death, 363 A.D., appear 
many laments over the decline of culture and rhetoric. Libanius 
mourns over the desertion of young students to the law school 
of Berytos, over the diminishing influence of parents in the 
intellectual development of their sons, over the possibility that 
people uneducated and incapable of oratory may be placed in 
high public offices, In his thirty-first oration, he addresses himself 
to the Council of Antiochaea to obtain an improvement in the 
material lot of the lesser rhetorical masters. Thus the Sophistic 
passes with the Fourth Century. In the Fifth Century there 
was an unimportant revival in the school founded by Procopius 
at Gaza, but long before Justinian closed the schools of heathen 
philosophy (529 A.D.) it had run its feeble course. 

- The Second Sophistic is not then a phase of a rhetorical epoch. 
It is itself an epoch of pagan rhetoric, a lineal descendant of 
Gorgias and the Fifth Century 8. c. operative in the Fourth 
Century A. Ὁ. in all circles of culture, Christian and Pagan. 
The extent of its influence on the style of St. Basil’s sermons 


is the quest of the following pages. : 
9 * 


CHAPTER III 
MINOR FIGURES OF RHETORIC 


From what has gone before, an obvious division of the figures 
of rhetoric suggests itself. The Second Sophistic, which dominates 
literature so thoroughly in the time of St. Basil that its name 
describes the epoch, has its antecedents in the Fifth century B. C., 
and howsoever the First Sophistic may differ from the Second, 
the tradition of the First is represented in the Second by 
those devices at least which constitute the one the ancestor 
of the other. The Second Sophistic created some new devices, 
others already existing it made its own by its peculiar devel- 
opment of them, while a still larger group it simply included 
as embellishments of style. These facts indicate the following 
division of the figures for purposes of exposition: 


I. Minor Figures of Rhetoric (including minor figures receiving 
a peculiarly sophistic development). 


Il. Figures and Devices peculiar to the Second Sophistic1 
as either its creations or adaptations. 


On the basis of a common characteristic, the Minor Figures 
of Rhetoric may be grouped as follows:— 


Figures of Redundancy. 

Figures of Repetition. 

. Figures of Sound. 

. Figures of Vivacity. 

. Devices of the Court-room and the Public Assembly. 
. Minor Figures Sophistically Developed. 


1. Figures of Redundancy in some way represent the para- 
phrase of an idea through more words than are necessary, 


= 


D> oP wd 





1 This second group will be discussed in Chapter IX. 


MINOR FIGURES OF RHETORIC 21 


for purposes of ornament and amplification. The following 
classification is used here: 

a) Periphrasis—redundancy proper—the distribution of an 
idea over unnecessary words without elaborating the thought— 
τὸ ἡλιακὸν coua—Hex. 6, 51C. 

b) Pleonasm—the joining of several words or phrases which 
have about the same meaning. Two words thus joined constitute 
the commonest variety.—vwOpés ἐστι καὶ ὄκνου πλήρης--- Ηοχ. 9, 87A. 

c) Arsis and Thesis—the presentation of an idea first negatively 
and then positively, the positive idea being introduced by ἀλλὰ- 
οὐκ εἰς τὸν τυχόντα τόπον, GAN εἰς τὸν vaov—Ps, 44, 169A. 

ἃ) Arsis and Thesis (positive-negative)—the presentation of 
an idea first positively and then negatively.—yéAwra ἀγούσης ἐν 
τῷ παλαίειν, ov orépavov.—Quod Mundanis, 166E. 

2. Figures of Repetition refer to the intentional repetition 
of entire words in certain well-defined places. Such devices 
have little to do with emphasis. Their purpose is rather 
artistic. Their skillful employniont produces something of a 
musical quality. 

a) Anadiplosis—the repetition of the same word within the 
same clause.—rore δή, tére—Advers. Iratos, 84D. 

b) Epanaphora—the repetition of the same word or words 
at the beginning of two or more consecutive cola.—viv—, viv—, 
—Hex. 1, 3B. 

c) Antistrophe—consecutive clauses end with the same word 
or words.—xovero Τόρδιος" ἐθεωρεῖτο I'dpdios—In Gordium, 145D. 

d) Anastrophe—one clause begins with the last word of the 
preceding clause.—xal πρὸς τὸν θεὸν ὦν" ὦν, οὐχὶ προσγενόμενος..---- 
. De Fide, 132A. 

e) Kuklos— the repetition of the initial word of a sentence 
or period as the concluding word of either the succeeding 
clause or the succeeding sentence.—érepov γένος τὸ κητῶδες καὶ 
τὸ τῶν λεπτῶν ἰχθύων érepov—Hex., 7, 64C. 

f) Climax—-the repetition of the last word of the preceding 
clause through several succeeding clauses of a period.—pujre οὖν 
6 πλούσιος τὸν πένητα ὑπερηφανείτω, μήτε 6 πένης τὴν δυναστείαν τῶν 
εὐπορούντων ὑποπτησσέτω" μήτε οἱ viol τῶν ἀνθρώπων τοὺς γηγενεῖς 
ἐξουθενείτωσαν, μήτε οἱ γηγενεῖς etc.—Ps, 48, 1786. 

8) Repetitive Paronomasia—the rhetorical repetition of the 


22 THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PATRISTIC STUDIES 


same word in the same sense.—émep πολλαχοῦ μὲν τῶν νήσων, 
πολλαχοῦ δὲ τῶν παραλίων τόπων ἔξεστιν torophou.—Hex, 4, 39A. 

.3. Figures of Sound also have an element of repetition, but 
here the words need only approximate one another in sound, 
and their position is not precisely fixed. 

a) Paronomasia—a similarity in the sound of words of the 
same root, plus a dissimilarity of sense. Their relative position 
in the cola is not important.—émt συμμαχίαν ἐλθὼν πολέμιον εὗρεν. 
ἀλεξιφάρμακα περιζητῶν,---Ῥ5. 14, 108B. | 

b) Polyptoton—a repetition of the same word in different | 
cases, either directly or after an interval.—immov μὲν γὰρ ἵππον 
ποιεῖται... καὶ λέοντα A€ovros—Hex. 9, 81 B. 

c) Alliteration—the recurrence of the same initial letter or 
letters in succeeding words. Only rarely the succession is not 
immediate.—zérAw πανδημεὶ mavres—Hex. 7, 67 B. 

d) Assonance—succeeding words end in similar sounds.“ 
τὴν ἀνάπαυσιν exovow—Hex. 2, 17D. 

e) Parechesis—a similarity in the sound of the words of 
different roots plus a dissimilarity of sense.—vt§ βαθεῖα καὶ νόσος 
Bapeta—In Divites, 60D. 

4, Figures of Vivacity in this study include all those figures 
whose chief mission is to lend a vivacious and sometimes 
dramatic effect to a passage. 

a) Asyndeton—the ellipsis of grammatical connectives to 
attain energy of style.—7 μακαρία φύσις, ἡ ἄφθονος ἀγαθότης, 
τὸ ἀγαπητὸν πᾶσι τοῖς λόγου μετειληφόσι, τὸ πολυπόθητον κάλλος, 
ἡ ἀρχὴ τῶν ὄντων, ἡ πηγὴ τῆς ζωῆς, τὸ νοερὸν φῶς, ἡ ἀπρόσιτος σοφία, 
οὗτος etc.—Hex. 1, 8 E. 

b) Polysyndeton—the repetition of conjunctions for cumulative 
effect—rG κόσμῳ καὶ ἀγγέλοις καὶ ἀνθρώποις.--- ἢ XL Martyres, 
1666, 

c) Rhetorical Questions—questions asked for effect and not 
for information.—-oia ἀκοὴ τοῦ μεγέθους τῶν λεγομένων ἀξία .---- 
Hex. 1,14. 

d) Exclamatio—an exclamatory utterance—® τοῦ θαύματος .---- 
In XL Martyres, 155B. 

e) Parenthesis—the interruption of the development of a 
sentence by intervening clause or clauses, sentence or sentences.— 
(πῶς yap οἱ καταβάντες cis gdov;)—Deus non est auct., 77A. 


MINOR FIGURES OF RHETORIC 23 


f) Hypostrophe—the orator catches up the thread of the 
narrative after a parenthesis and makes a fresh start by 
either repeating the subject or adding the demonstrative.— 
ὁ γὰρ ὑποκείμενος τῷ φύλλῳ κόκκος ( ) τοῦτο σπέρματος ἔχει δύναμιν---- 
Hex. 5, 45 Β. 

8) Litotes—the emphatic affirmation of an idea Sheoueh the 
negation of its opposite.—ovd pupos—In Barlaam, 138 E. 

h) Irony and Sarcasm-: irony, wherein the speaker clothes 
his thought in a form that literally expresses its opposite; 
sarcasm, irony plus personal enmity or scorn.—éeuvirwoav ἡμῖν 
ot τὰ πάντα Sewvot.—Hex. 3, 29B. 

5. Devices of the Court-room and the Public Assembly here 
refer to those peculiar devices of the old rhetors forged for 
a practical rather than an artistic effect. Their manner of 
development affects the style of a passage wherein they are 
used, adding something of the dramatic to it. 

a) Diaporesis—a pretended doubt as to where to begin, 
where to leave off, especially what to say.—ri οὖν roujropev— 
In Mamantem, 185C. 

b) Epidiorthosis—the correcting or restricting of a previous 
assertion—padAov δὲ αὐτὸ τὸ Kaxov—Hex. 2, 150, 

c) Prokataleipsis—a real argument is seriously anticipated 
or overthrown.—xal πῶς δυνατόν, φασί, τοῦτο γενέσθαι, ψυχὴν 
κατώδυνον συμφοραῖς, καὶ οἱονεὶ περικεντουμένην τῇ αἰσθήσει τῶν 
ἀλγεινῶν, μὴ πρὸς θρήνους ἐκφέρεσθαι καὶ δάκρυα, ἀλλ᾽ εὐχαριστεῖν ὡς 
ἐπ᾿ ἀγαθοῖς τοῖς ἀπευκταίοις κατὰ ἀλήθειαν :---- πὰ Julittam, 36C—D. 

d) Paraleipsis—while pretending to pass the point over in 
silence, the speaker manages to say all that he desires. —xai 
τί δεῖ τοὺς ἄλλους ἀπαριθμεῖσθαι ots αἱ ‘Piral γεννῶσι τὰ ὑπὲρ τῆς 
ἐνδοτάτω Σκυθίας dopn;—Hex. 3, 28A. 

e) Prosopopoiia—that form of statement in which the speaker 
places a long or short speech in the mouth of another, whether 
that “person is actually before him or is merely feigned.— 
TOS OW κατὰ γένος, φασίν, ἡ γῆ προφέρει τὰ σπέρματα, ὁπότε σῦτον πολλάκις 
καταβαλόντες, τὸν μέλανα τοῦτον πυρὸν συγκομίζομεν: —Hex. 5, 43 Εἰ. 

f) Dialektikon—the speaker elucidates a point by a combi- 
nation of question and answer.—ds δὲ πρῶτον σωθῆναι εὔχεται 
ἐκ τῶν διωκόντων, εἶτα ῥυσθῆναι; ἡ διαστολὴ σαφῆ ποιήσει τὸν Adyov— 


Ps. 7, 994. 


24 THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PATRISTIC STUDIES 


g) Hypophora—the raising of an objection for the sake of 
immediate refutation.—zAjxrns; ἀλλ᾽ ἀνήρ. πάροινος: ἀλλ᾽ ἡνωμένος 
κατὰ τὴν φύσιν. τραχὺς καὶ δυσάρεστος; ἀλλὰ μέλος ἤδη σόν, καὶ μελῶν 
τὸ τιμιώτατον. --- ΗΘχ. 7, 68 B. 

h) Prodiorthosis—a promise to be brief.—zodXol τεχνῖται... 
of τὸν λόγον ἡμῖν συντέμνουσιν, ἵνα μὴ ἐπὶ πολὺ τῆς ἐργασίας ἀφέλκωνται.--- 
Hex. 8, 226. 

6. Under Minor Figures receiving a peculiarly sophistic 
development are here grouped those figures whose use in 
St. Basil’s time admits of that extravagance and poor taste 
which characterize largely the Second Sophistic. 

a) Hyperbaton—a transposition of words from their natural 
order, sometimes for emphasis, but generally for elegant 
affectation.—1% τῆς συναγωγῆς ἐμφαίνει tpoonyopia—Hex. 4, 36C. 

Ὁ) Hendiadys—the placing on an equal grammatical plane 
two expressions, one of which is logically subordinate to the 
other.— ὅμοι δοκοῦσι μὴ συνειδότες τινές, Tapaywyais τισι Kal τροπολογίαις 
σεμνότητά τινα ἐκ τῆς οἰκείας αὐτῶν διανοίας ἐπεχείρησαν τοῖς γεγραμμένοις 
ἐπιφημίσαι.--- Hex. 9, 830E—S81A. 

c) Adjective Substantive Abstract—an idea properly ad- 
jectival is raised to substantive rank as an abstract noun.— 
πρὸς τοὺς φαύλους τῶν λόγων---Αα Adolescentes, 175 D. 

d) Paradox and Oxymoron—an expression self-contradictory 
when separated from its context.—dvev γῆς φυτεύεις" ἄνευ σπορᾶς 
Geptheas—Ps. 14, 1130. 

e) Hyperbole—emphasis and comparison through exag- 
geration.—PBovvot τινες σάρκινοι (likening elephants to hills of 
flesh).— Hex. 9, 86A. 

f) Antonomasia—the designation of a person by one of his 
qualities or accomplishments.—rod xricavros.—(for God)—Attende 
Tibiipsi, 24A. 

g) Antimetathesis—the repetition of the same word in a 
sentence, with a different meaning,—dAX’ ἀπὸ ζωῆς (life on earth) 
εἰς ( wiv (life in heaven).—In Gordium 148 C. 


CHAPTER IV 
FIGURES OF REDUNDANCY 


a) PERIPHRASIS. 


Periphrasis in prose—the representation of an idea through 
deliberate verbal turgescence—goes back to Gorgias at least.1 
Isocrates, in his development of the period, gave periphrasis 
a sanction which the excesses of Gorgias had denied to it. 
This unnecessary fullness of expression, this “padding” for grand 
effects, became incorporated into the tradition of the schools. 
In the rhetoric of the Empire the vanity of the rhetors and 
the poverty of real themes emphasized the tendency of the 
times to out-do Attic masters in many of their collective 
peculiarities. One must not forget that other tendency equally 
characteristic of the times towards loss of inflection and simpli- 
fication of syntax. This fact accounts for many expressions 
which, judged from Attic standards, are decidedly pleonastic.? 
Thus, of the multitude of examples found in Basil’s sermons, 
a careful review has eliminated many. The uncertain line 
separating the grammatical from the rhetorical makes any 
treatment of the figure, at best, subjective. 


The following are representative examples: 
—ovk ἁμαρτήσεις τοῦ προσήκοντος --- Hex. 2, 15H. ΞῈ οὐκ ἁμαρτήσεις. 
-- τῶν ποταμίων ὑδάτων --- Ηδοχ. 4, 89 A. Ξ τῶν ποταμῶν. 
-- τοῖς ἐν σαρκὶ ζῶσι---ῬΡ, 7, 108 Α. 4 τοῖς (Sor, 
—eis λήθην ἤλθετε---- Ps, 29, 127 B. τ ἐπελάθεσθε. 
- τοῖς ἔχουσιν ὦτα κατὰ τὸν ἔσω ἄνθρωπον--- 5. 44, 159 1), 
-- τὴν συνηγορίαν τοῦ λόγου πληρώσω---Τ Ὁ J ulittam, 35D. συνηγορήσω. 
--- αἰς ἔννοιαν ἔρχομαι ---- Οοπέγα, Sabellianos, 194 Εἰ. <} ἐννοῦμαι. 





1 Cf. Plato; Gorgias 456A—457C and the fragments of Gorgias in 
Blass, Antiphontis Orationes, 150ff, 
2 Cf. Trunk, 29. 


26 THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PATRISTIC STUDIES 


Excellent examples may be found in the following places. 
Hex. 1,60; Hex. 2,14C; Hex. 4, 38E; Hex. 5, 45B; Hex. 6; 
59C; De Jejunio 2,11A; In Julittam, 136D; In Gordium, 143B; 
Ad Adolescentes, 184E. 


FREQUENCY OF PERIPHRASIS IN THE SERMONS. 


Hex. 1 (530) 14 De Jejunio 2 (330) 3 
is 2 (507) 12 Attende Tibiipsi (480) 5 
" 8 (579) 25 De Grat,.Act. (459) 2 
᾿ 4 (398) 7 In Julittam (580) 6 
ἠὲ δ (570) 17 In Illud Lucae (406) 3 
τ 6 (746) 24 In Divites (601) 5 
δ 7 (425) 8 In Fam. et Siccit. (584) 4 
= 8 (572) 9 Deus non est auct. (598) 7 
2 9 (507) 11 Advers. Iratos (452) 2 

Ps 1 (449) 5 De Invidia (359) — 
Ἢ 7 (541) 14 ‘In Princip. Proverb. (895) 5 
Ἢ 14 (372) 3 In Sanct. Baptisma. (522) 1 
= 28 (636) 10 In Ebriosos (423) 3 
ἡ 29 (418) 5 De Fide (185) — 
ἢ 32 (651) 7 In Princip. erat V. (248) 8 
i 33 (963) 1 In Barlaam (141) 3 
A 44 (687) 5 In Gordium (425) 1 
56 45 (407) — In XL Martyres (392) 3 
Ἂς 48 (682) 4 De Humilitate (353) 3 
δι 59 (242) 1 Quod Mundanis. (633) 5 
ἢ 61 (336) --- Ad Adolescentes (627) 1 
» 114 (276) 1 In Mamantem (244) — . 


De Jejunio 1 (475) 1 Contra Sabellianos (444) 2 


The preponderance of examples found in the Hexaemeron 
and in some of the homilies on the psalms may be due in 
part to the demands of the subject-matter in each case treated. 
Beyond a certain pompousness, the fullness of expression which 
this figure affords was a necessary vehicle in voicing fine philo- 
sophical distinctions. Such distinctions abound in the Hexae- 
meron. The above table shows a liking for the figure in 
exegetical passages. But whether Basil was restrained or 


FIGURES OF REDUNDANCY . 27 


generous in his use of it we cannot tell, for we have not the 
materials for a comparison with his contemporaries on this 
point and, did we possess statistics of the other Christian 
orators of the time, their value would be questionable in 
drawing conclusions because of the highly subjective character 
of such statistics on periphrasis. 


b) PiEonasm. 


A far more tangible evidence of Basil’s tendency towards 
diffuseness is his generous employment of pleonasm—the 
juxtaposition of synonyms, whether of words, phrases, or clauses, 
This very rudimentary device had been used by Athenian 
advocates to concentrate the attention of the juries more 
clearly upon a desired point. It produced a kind of pause in 
the development of the thought and emphasized the desired 
point by the very time consumed in synonymous repetition. 
Ideas not readily grasped by a single enunciation frequently 
justified the use of synonyms in all epochs of Greek rhetoric. 
The growing tendency towards turgescence in the Isocratic 
tradition explains a third use of this figure. 


Examples. 

Cumulative emphasis: — συναρμόζοντα καὶ τὸ πᾶν ὁμόλογον ἑαυτῷ 
καὶ σύμφωνον καὶ ἐναρμονίως ἔχον.--- Hex. 1, 8A. 

Metaphorical pleonasm:—% βρύουσα πηγή, ἡ ἄφθονος χάρις, ὁ 
ἀδαπάνητος Onoavpds.—Ps. 1, 920. 

The first phrase is amplified by its synonym:—oi πρότερον διὰ τὸ 
ἐμβαθύνειν τῇ κακίᾳ καὶ ταῖς ἀκαθαρσίαις τῆς σαρκὸς ἐμμολύνεσθαι. --- 
Ps. 29, 1278. 

Synonymous clauses:—<érav ἡμεῖς ἐπὶ τὸν Κύριον ἀποβλέπωμεν καὶ 
ὦσιν ἡμῶν οἱ ὀφθαλμοὶ πρὸς αὐτόν.---Ῥ5. 82, 141B. 

--σὺ δὲ κατέχεις τὸν παραῤῥέοντα καὶ περιφράσσεις τὰς διεξόδους. --- 
In Illud Lucae, 47D. 

Time distinction: 

- ποιῶν εἰρήνην καὶ εἰρηνοποιήσας.---- 8. 33, 153 E. 

Exceedingly empty are:—avris ὁ εἰρηνοποιός, 6 ποιῶν εἰρήνην --- 
Ps. 33, 148A. 

- ἐκλογὴν τοῦ συμφέροντος καὶ ἀποστροφὴν τοῦ BAaBepot.—De Grat. 
Act., 27A. } 


28 THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PATRISTIC STUDIES 


—6re ἤτεις παρὰ τοῦ Κυρίου τὴν εὐπαιδίαν, ὅτε ἠξίου γενέσθαι τέκνων 
πατήρ.---Τὰ Divites, 59C. 

For further examples consult Hex. 2,16A; Hex. 8, 73H; 
Ps. 38, 121A; Ps. 44, 162B; De JejunioI, 8A; Attende 
Tibiipsi, 16E; In Julittam, 39E; In Fam. et Siccit., 70B; 
Advers. Iratos, 88D; In Princip. Proverb, 100E; In XL 
Martyres, 155C; Contra Sabellianos, 194E. 


FREQUENCY OF PLEONASM IN THE SERMONS. 


Hex 1 (530) 42 De Jejunio IT (330) 9 
᾿ 2 (507) 39 Attende Tibiipsi (480) 24 
z: 8 (579) 41 De Grat. Act. (459) 26 
ἐς 4 (393) 14 In Julittam (580) 33 
is 5 (570) 18 In Illud Lucae (406) 9 
ἢ 6 (746) 23 In Divites (601) 9 
᾿ 7 (425) 27 In Fam. et Siccit. (684) 35 
τ 8. 1Ἃδ679)..928 Deus non est auct. (598) 15 
= 9 (507) 14 Advers. Iratos (452) 17 

ive 1 (449) 26 De Invidia (359) 6 
τ 7 (541) 27 In Princip. Proverb. (895) 21 
ᾧ 14. (872) 11 In Sanct. Baptisma (522) 9 
» 28 (636) 31 In Ebriosos (423) 22 
Ξ 29 (418) 17 De Fide (185) 3 
᾿ 99. (651). 33 In Princip. erat V. (248) 9 
ἢ 88 (963) 50 In Barlaam (141) — 
δ 44 (687) 28 In Gordium (425) 13 
i; 45 (407) 23 In XL Martyres (392) 9 
‘3 48 (682) 16 De Humilitate (353) 4 


: 59 (242) 1 Quod Mundanis (633) 11 
” 61 (336) 9 Ad Adolescentes (627) 16 
» 11 (276). 8 In Mamantem (244) 2 
De Jejunio 1 (475) 11 Contra Sabellianos (444) 7 


Dignity and emphasis and verbal splendor are alike attained 
by the varying employments of pleonasm. The examples in 
Basil, with rare exceptions, are designed for the last of these 
three effects. Their number, 837 in all, bespeaks a generous 
but not excessive use of the figure as a whole. 


FIGURES OF REDUNDANCY 29 


c) ArsIs AND ‘THESIS. 


A third form of amplification, very common in all epochs 
of Greek rhetoric and designed for the same general purposes 
as the figures immediately preceding, is arsis and thesis— 
the presentation of the idea first negatively and then positively. 
A less common form, wherein the positive statement precedes 
the negative, is not mentioned by the rhetoricians, although ~ 
it is often more rhetorical.? Unless designated “positive-negative”, 
all references hereafter refer to the more common form. 


Examples. 


In four successive sentences occur the following:— ovx ἐν τοῖς 
ἰδίοις αὐτοῦ μέρεσιν, add’ ἐν τῷ πρὸς τὴν ὄψιν ἀλύπῳ —.—ovK ἐκ τῆς 
τῶν μερῶν συμμετρίας, ἀλλ᾽ ἐκ τῆς εὐχροίας μόνης. ---- οὐ διὰ τὸ ἀνα- 
λογοῦντα ἔχειν τὰ μέρη ἐξ ὧν συνέστηκεν, ἀλλὰ διὰ τὸ ἄλυπόν τινα καὶ 
ἡδεῖαν τὴν ἀπ᾽ αὐτοῦ αὐγὴν ----οοὐ πάντως πρὸς τὸ ἐν ὄψει τερπνὸν 
ἀποβλέποντος, ἀλλὰ καὶ πρὸς τὴν εἰς ὕστερον ἀπ᾽ αὐτοῦ ὠφέλειαν.---- 
Hex. 2, 19 D—E. 

A prolonged example:—~p1) γίνου κριτὴς ἄνισος σεαυτοῦ, μηδὲ πρὸς 
χάριν ἐξέταζε: εἰ μέν τι δοκεῖς ἔχειν καλόν, τοῦτο ἐν ψήφῳ τιθείς, τῶν 
δὲ πταισμάτων ἑκὼν ἐπιλανθανόμενος, μηδὲ ἐφ᾽ οἷς μὲν σήμερον 
κατορθοῖς μεγαλυνόμενος, ἐφ᾽ οἷς δὲ πρῴην καὶ πάλαι κακῶς εἰργάσω, 
συγχώρησιν σεαυτῷ διδούς" ἀλλ᾽ ὅταν σε τὸ παρὸν ἐπαίρῃ, τὸ 
παλαιὸν εἰς ἀνάμνησιν ἀγέτω, καὶ παύσῃ τῆς ἀναισθήτου φλεγμονῆς. ---- 
De Humilitate, 160}. 

A fivefold example of the positive-negative variety.— ov, οὐχὶ 
προσγενόμενος" ὑπάρχων πρὸ τῶν αἰώνων, οὐχὶ προσκτηθεὶς ὕστερον. 
υἱός, οὐχὶ κτῆμα" ποιητής, οὐχὶ ποίημα" κτίστης, οὐχὶ κτίσμα. --- 
De Fide, 131 H—132A. 

For further examples of the positive-negative variety, consult 
Hex. 1, 8E; Ps. 1, 91D; Ps. 29, 1800); De Jejunio 2, 11E; 
Deus non est auct., 78E; Quod Mundanis, 163B; Ad Adoles- 
centes, 179C; In Mamantem, 188C; Contra Sabellianos, 191 B. 
Of the negative-positive variety representative examples may 
be found in Hex. 3, 23C; Hex. 6, 52B; Ps. 1, 95E; Ps. 48, 186C; 





3 Cf. Robinson, 13. 


30 THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PATRISTIC STUDIES 


De Grat. Act., 320; In Julittam, 36B; In Sanct. Baptisma, 
116A; In Gordium, 144D; Contra Sabellianos, 190 B. 


FREQUENCY OF ARSIS AND T'HESIS IN THE SERMONS.4 
Hex. 1 (530) 16; p-n.2 De Jejunio 11 (330) 9;p-n.2 


i, 2 (507) 24; p-n.6 Attende Tibiipsi (480) 15; 
3 (579) 10; p-n.1 De Grat. Act. (459) 18; p-n.1 


ϑ 4 (898) 8; p-n.2 In Julittam (580) 31; p-n.1 
% 5 (570) 9; In Illud Lucae (406) 13; 
᾿ 6 (746) 27; p-n. 1 In Divites (601) 17; p-n.1 
= 7 (425) 10; In Fam. et Siccit. (584) 14; 
a 8 (572) 18; Deus non est auct. (598) 23; p-n.3 
is 9 (507) 20; p-n.1 Advers. Iratos (452) 12; 

Ps. 1 (449) 10; p-n.1 De Invidia (359) 11; p-n.1 
Ἢ 7 (541) 13; In Princip. Proverb. (895) 22; p-n.3 
» 14 (872) 10; p-n.2 In Sanct. Baptisma (522) 17; p-n.2 
» 28 (636) 19; In Ebriosos (423) 5;p-n.1 
» 229 (418) 8; p-n.1 De Fide (185) 13; p-n.5 
» 32 (651) 20; In Princip. erat V. (248) 7; 

» 933 (963) 28; p-n.2 In Barlaam (141) 7; 
» 44 (687) 24; p-n.2 In Gordium (425) 12; 
» 45 (407) 7; In XL Martyres (392) 12; 
» 48 (682) 27; De Humilitate (353) 17; 
» 59 (242) 8; p-n.1 Quod Mundanis (633) 9;p-n.3 
»  01:(836) 9; Ad Adolescentes (627) 21; p-n.4 
» 114 (276) 14; In Mamantem (244) 10; p-n.6 


De Jejunio I (475) 16; p-n.1 Contra Sabellianos (444) 18; p-n.6 


A certain preciseness is attained by the sharp, clear-cut 
juxtaposition of the positive and negative. In discussing theo- 
logical questions before popular audiences, arsis was oft-times 
indispensable to an orator. In its cumulative form Basil shows 
arsis capable of great rhetorical power and efficacious for 
strong emphasis. But a perusal of the examples of the figure 
found in his pages shows that, for the most part, arsis is for 
Basil merely a rhetorical mannerism, a third manifestation of 





4 p-n. refers to the positive-negative variety. 


FIGURES OF REDUNDANCY 31 


that leaning towards turgescence which the parade-orators 
of the Second Sophistic considered elegant. 

The varying purposes of the dissertations on the rhetoric 
of the Empire so far produced deprive us of a standard where- 
by to judge the pleonastic aspects of St. Basil’s style. A 
distinct tendency in the direction of turgescence is established, 
but at all events not an excessive tendency. When we consider 
that 1836 examples (if we include all of the somewhat uncertain 
instances of periphrasis in this total) occur in 563 pages of 
text, we are justified in characterizing St. Basil’s use of the 
Figures of Redundancy as generous. A glance at the tables 
shows his use of these figures consistent on the whole. They 
- do not, however, partake of that excess which our knowledge 
of the Second Sophistic leads us to expect in a faithful TENS, 
whose taste for grandiloquence is evident. 


CHAPTER V 
FIGURES OF REPETITION 


a) ANADIPLOSIS. 


Anadiplosis—the repetition of the same word within a clause— © 
comes down from the poets. In Homer it is merely a device 
of cumulative emphasis. 1n the lyric and tragic poets it 
represents excitation or pathos. It was thus used moderately 
by Demosthenes.! Its intense, passionate feeling is generally 
reinforced by asyndeton. Only one example occurs in the 
sermons.—rére δή, τότε, TA οὔτε λόγῳ ῥητὰ οὔτε ἔργῳ φορητὰ ἐπιδεῖν 
ἐστι Oedpara,—Advers. Iratos, 84D. 

The same effect is produced by the following, wherein two 
successive sentences begin with the same words.—Sds μοι τέκνα, 
ἵνα παρακούσω τῶν ἐντολῶν σου" δός μοι τέκνα, iva μὴ φθάσω εἴς τὴν 
βασιλείαν τῶν otpavov.—In Divites, 590. 


b) EpanapHora. 


As a mechanism of style, epanaphora—the repetition of the 
same word at the beginning of two or more succeeding cola— 
makes for emphasis by putting the repeated word first; for 
clearness, by forecasting the construction of the succeeding 
colon and thus allowing the mind of the hearer to concentrate 
the more upon the thought.2 In its artistic repetition, it 
exercises a certain charm upon the ear. Even with unim- 
portant words like τότε pév—, τότε δὲ---, the figure has some 
rhetorical value, and this value increases with the increase 





1 Sibler. Volkmann 2, 466—7. 
2 Rehdantz, 6. 


FIGURES OF REPETITION 33 


of successive repetitions. It is found in literature from Homer 
down. In this study the repetition of the same word at the 
beginning of two or more succeeding clauses is called clause 
epanaphora; of two or more succeeding sentences, sentence 
epanaphora. The following are noteworthy examples of Basil’s 
use of the figure:— ) 

In clause epanaphora the very common ov is not without 
rhetorical effect, as in the five-fold arsis—ovx ὑπέχουσι τὰς 
ἀκοὰς λόγοις θεοῦ, οὐ λαμβάνουσιν αἴσθησιν τῆς ἑαυτῶν φύσεως, ov 
λυποῦνται... ὑπὸ τῆς ἁμαρτίας: οὐ λυποῦνται εἰς μνήμην τῶν ἁμαρτιῶν 
᾿ ἀφικνούμενοι, οὐ τρέμουσι τὴν Kpiow.—Ps, 28, 1234. For ἃ seven- 
fold example with οὐ consult Ps. 1, 91; for a four-fold with 
τὸ, Quod Mundanis, 172 ΕἸ; for a five-fold with ἐπειδὴ, In Fam. 
et Siccit., 66 D. 

A very artificial example with parison, agyndeton, and paro- 
nomasia.—AiOos ἐστὶν ὁ χρυσός, λίθος 6 ἄργυρος. λίθος ὁ pap- 
γαρίτης, λίθος τῶν λίθων exarros—In Divites, 58 E. 

Epanaphora of two words:—ovd γὰρ μόνος ἔπεισας φλόγα μὴ βιάζεσθαι 
χεῖρα: σὺ μόνος ἐκτήσω θυσιαστήριον δεξιάν: σὺ μόνος δεξιᾷ φλεγομένῃ 
τὰ τῶν δαιμόνων ἐῤῥάπισας tpdcowra.—In Barlaam, 141A. 

With paronomasia: —co¢ds ὧν διὰ τὴν οἰκείαν ὁρμήν, σοφώτερος γέγονε 
διὰ τὴν ἐκ τῆς διδασκαλίας τελείωσιν.---Τ Princip. Proverb., 110 Εἰ. 
For a like example with polyptoton consult, In Mamantem, 
185C. 

Of sentence epanaphora, the following contain interesting 
variations from the usual two-fold or three-fold variety: 
Ps. 28, 151D and Ἐπ, wherein four succeeding sentences begin 
with the word «ra; Quod Mundanis, 163D-E, wienens six 
succeeding eps bie: begin with μηδέ. 

A whole clause is used as epanaphora in the following sentences, 
already quoted under anadiplosis:— δός μοι τέκνα, iva παρακούσω τῶν 
ἐντολῶν σου; δός μοι τέκνα, ἵνα μὴ φθάσω εἰς τὴν βασιλείαν τῶν 
ὀυρανῶν;--- Τὰ Divites, 59 C-D. 

Two corresponding clauses of two succeeding sentences begin 
with the same words: 

—«d γὰρ τὰ πρόσκαιρα τοιαῦτα, ποταπὰ τὰ αἰώνια: 
καὶ εἰ τὰ ὁρώμενα οὕτω καλά, ποταπὰ τὰ ἀόρατα:--- Hex. 6, 50D-E. 
Consult also Hex. 8, 79B; Ps. 1, 92E; Ps. 28, 144B; 1604: 


Ps, 61, 197E; 198E. 
3 


34 THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PATRISTIC STUDIES 


Sentence and clause epanaphora with polyptoton: 
—ovdels ἐκραιπάλησεν ἀπὸ ὕδατος  _ 

οὐδενὸς κεφαλὴ ὠδυνήθη ποτὲ ὕδατι βαρηθεῖσα. 

οὐδεὶς ἀλλοτρίων ποδῶν ἐδεήθη, ὑδροποσίᾳ συζῶν. 


οὐδενὸς ἐδέθησαν πόδες, 
οὐδενὸς χεῖρες ἀπηχρειώθησαν, ὕδατι καταρδόμεναι.----1)6 Jejunio 1, 70Ὁ. 


FREQUENCY OF EPANAPHORA IN THE SERMONS. 


Hex. 1 (530) 
» 2 (807) 
» 58 (565) 
ya (398) 
” 5 (570) 
» 6 (746) 
» . @ (425) 
» 8 (572) 
» 9 (507) 


Ps. 1 (449). 


home) 
» 14 (872) 
» 238 (636) 
» 29 (418) 
» 32 (661) 
» 388 (963) 
» 44 (687) 
» 45 (407) 
» 48 (682) 
» BY (242) 
» 61 (336) 
» 114 (276) 
De Jejunio 1 (475) 


30 


Sen- 
tence 


wn bd & Oe 


Clause 


De Jejunio 2 (330) 3 
Attende Tibiipsi (480) 15 
De Grat. Act. (459) 9 


In Julittam (580) 15 
In Illud Lucae (406) 15 
In Divites (601) 39 


In Fam. et Siccit. (584) 16 
Deus non est auct. (598) 11 
Advers. Iratos (452) 5 
De Invidia (359) 7 
In Princip. Proverb. (895) 17 
Tn Sanct. Baptisma. (522) 22 


In Ebriosos (423) 11 
De Fide (185) 7 
In Princip. erat V. (248) 10 
In Barlaam (141) 4 
In Gordium (425) 15 


In XL Martyres (392) 6 
De Humilitate (353) 8 
Quod Mundanis (633) 4 
Ad Adolescentes (627) 4 
In Mamantem (244) 16 
Contra Sabellianos (444) 9 


Sen- 
tence 


he rm DD μὰ 


6 


1 
4 


The elaboration of the examples quoted above and the 
consistent use of the figure throughout the sermons, excepting 
in Ps. 114 show, that St. Basil had a liking for epanaphora. 
Its beauty, its clarity, its emphasis alike appealed to him. 
Its frequency—565 examples in all—does not, however, indicate 


FIGURES OF REPETITION 35 


an excessive use of the figure, judged from standards of taste 
far less exuberant than the Asiatic. 


c) ANTISTROPHE. 


Antistrophe—the repetition of the same word at the end 
of two or more succeeding clauses—is called by Hermogenes 
a device of beauty.2 Very rarely does it occur in Basil. 
The following are representative examples: 

--ἡ ὁδὸς οὐκ ἔστι σὴ ἀλλ᾽ οὐδὲ τὰ πάροντα od—Ps, 1, 94K. 
πα ψαάλμον ἔχεις, ᾿προσφητείαν ἔχεις--- 5. 28, 128 Β. 
—vov δακρύεις, ἀλλ᾽ ἐγέλασας πρότερον" 

viv πτωχεύεις, ἀλλ᾽ ἐπλούτησας tpdrepov—Quod Mundanis, 172 D. 
The remaining instances in the sermons are to be found in 

Hex. 8, 70C; Ps. 32,137E; Ps. 32, 138D; Ps. 45, 176 ΕἸ: 

Ps. 114, 203A; In Ebriosos, 128A; In Ebriosos, 129D; In 

Gordium, 1450. 


The eleven examples found are excellent representatives of 
this highly artificial device. Their quality bespeaks St. Basil’s 
adaptability to the requirements of the figure. Their rarity 
in so ample an expanse of text argues restraint even in the 
use of a figure unsuited to prolonged or frequent development. 


d) ANASTROPHE. 


Anastrophe—the repetition of the final word of one clause 
at the beginning of the next clause—occurs not at all in the 
early Attic orators, although Homer and the Tragic Poets 
exemplify it. Isaeus and Demosthenes use it only rarely. 
St. Basil too is very sparing in his employment of it. An 
excellent example was not found in his sermons. 

Typical of its use in his pages 806: ---ἰαθῶμεν διὰ τῆς μετανοίας " 
μετάνοια δὲ χωρὶς νηστείας ἀργή. ---1)6 Jejunio 1, 3B. 

μετὰ τὴν καρποφορίαν τῶν ἐπιζητουμένων, ἀναγκαία ἡ προσκύνησις. 

προσκύνησις δὲ ἡ οὐκ ἔξω τῆς ἐκκλησίας. ---Ῥ5, 28, 116 Ὁ. 

The remaining examples in the sermons, some of them presenting 
merely the form of the figure, in all probability, are to be 
found in Hex. 1, 106; Hex. 6,580; Ps. 48, 182A; In Illud 





3 II, 335. 
3* 


96 THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PATRISTIC STUDIES. 


Lucae, 48B; De Invidia, 92D; In Sanct. Baptisma, 116 H; 
De Fide, 131E. 


The infrequency of its occurrence, even allowing for dubious 
examples, and the uncertain quality of many of the examples 
found reveal anastrophe as still less an element of St. Basil’s 
style than antistrophe. 


6) Kuxnos. 


Kuklos—wherein the first clause of a period begins, and 
the next or last clause ends, with the same word—is obviously 
so artificial a figure that its frequent use would blight the 
style it tried to embellish. Only one instance of its use occurs 
in the sermons.—érepov γένος τὸ κητῶδες καὶ τὸ τῶν λεπτῶν ἰχθύων 
érepov.— Hex. 7, 646. 


ἢ Cumax. 


Climax—a repetition of the last word of the preceding 
clause through several successive clauses of a period—is also 
too artificial for extended use. 

Examples:—épa τὴν ἀκολουθίαν ψυχῆς πρὸς αἷμα, αἵματος πρὸς σάρκα, 
σαρκὸς πρὸς τὴν γῆν καὶ πάλιν ἀναλύσας διὰ τῶν αὐτῶν ἀναπόδισον 
ἀπὸ γῆς εἰς σάρκα, ἀπὸ σαρκὸς εἰς αἷμα, ἀπὸ αἵματος εἰς ψυχήν" καὶ 
εὑρήσεις ὅτι γῇ ἐστι τῶν κτηνῶν ἡ ψυχή.---Ηἴχ. 8, 71C. 

--θυμὸς μὲν γὰρ ἐγείρει μάχην, μάχη δὲ γεννᾷ λοιδορίας, αἱ δὲ λοιδορίαι 
πληγάς, at δὲ πληγαὶ τραύματα, ἐκ δὲ τραυμάτων πολλάκις θάνατοι.---- 
Advers. Iratos, 85C. 

Of scriptural origin is the following :—épyafdpevar ὑπομονήν, Kat 
διὰ τῆς ὑπομονῆς δοκιμήν, καὶ διὰ τῆς δοκιμῆς ἐλπίδα.----Ῥ 5, 45, 171 ΕἸ. 

The only other examples of climax in the sermons occur in 
Ps. 48,178D; Ps. 59, 192D; De Invidia, 94C; In Sanct. 
Baptisma, 118C; Contra Sabellianos, 196 Εἰ, 


g) REPETITIVE PARONOMASIA. 


The phrase “Repetitive Paronomasia”, not found in the 
rhetoricians, I have borrowed from Robinson.‘ It designates 
the rhetorical repetition of the same word in the same sense. 





4 25. 


FIGURES OF REPETITION 37 


The examples found in the sermons are built upon the forced 

repetition of very ordinary words, such as οὐ, ἀντί, ὡς, διά, or 

upon less usual words twice or thrice repeated. Its skillful 
use lends great vigor to the style of a passage. 

Examples:— dAdo. μὲν γάρ ἐσμεν παῖδες, καὶ ἄλλοι ἔφηβοι καὶ 
ἀνδρωθέντες ἕτεροι. ... καὶ ἄλλοι μὲν ἐν ταῖς φαιδροτέραις ἐσμὲν 
καταστάσεσι τῶν πραγμάτων - ἄλλοι δὲ ἐξ ἄλλων γινόμεθα τραχυτέρᾳ 
συντυχίᾳ καιρῶν κεχρημένοι: ἄλλοι νοσοῦντες καὶ ἄλλοι εὐπαθοῦντες" 
ἄλλοι ἐν γάμοις καὶ ἄλλοι ἐν πένθεσιν.---Ῥ8. 59, 190C-D. 

Three-fold repetition:— ἀντὶ τῶν μωλώπων, τῶν ἐπανισταμένων τῷ 
σώματι, φωτεινὸν ἔνδυμα ἡμῖν ἐν τῇ ἀναστάσει ἐπανθήσει" ἀντὶ τῆς 
ἀτιμίας, στέφανοι" ἀντὶ δεσμωτηρίου, παράδεισος: ἀντὶ τῆς μετὰ τῶν 
κακούργων καταδίκης, ἡ μετ᾽ ἀγγέλων διαγωγή. ---- [πἰ Gordium, 
146 B-C. | 

- διὰ τί Λόγος; ἵνα δειχθῇ ὅτι ἐκ τοῦ vod προῆλθε" διὰ τί Λόγος: 
ὅτι ἀπαθῶς ἐγεννήθη: διὰ τί Λόγος: ὅτι εἰκὼν τοῦ γεννήσαντος ὅλον 
ἐν ἑαυτῷ δεικνὺς τὸν γεννήσαντα.... --- ἢ Princip. erat V., 136 D. 

An example based on the eleven-fold repetition of οὐκ occurs 
in Ps. 114, 204 A-B; a four-fold repetition of ἀπὸ in 
Ps. 45, 176C; the three-fold repetition of μετὰ in Ps. 48, 179C; 
the six-fold repetition of οὐ in De Jejunio 1,7E; a four- 
fold repetition of μετὰ in In Princip. Proverb.,112C, For 
further examples consult Hex. 5,41A; Ps. 1, 90B; Ps. 28, 
115 C-D; Ps. 44,163 E; Attende cee 18A; In XL 
Martyres, 149 B. 


FREQUENCY OF REPETITIVE PARONOMASIA IN THE SERMONS. 


Hex: 2) (680}..3 De Jejunio 2 (330) 8 
5, 2 (507) 2 Attende Tibiipsi (480) 2 
‘s 3 (565) 5 De Grat. Act. (459) 3 
* 4 (393) 38 In Julittam (580) 3 
τῇ δ... (670). ὃ In Illud Lucae (406) 3 
τ 6 (746) 6 In Divites (601) 5 
Ἂ 7 (425) 2 In Fam. et Siccit. (584) 2 
᾿ 8 (572) 8 Deus non est auct. (598) 4 
3 9 (507) 1 Ad Iratos (452) 2.) 

Ρ5. 1 (449) 5 De Invidia (359) 8 


38 THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PATRISTIC STUDIES 


Ps. 7 (641) 5 In Princip. Proverb. (895) 3 
v 14 (372) 5 In Sanct. Baptisma (522) 8 
> 28 (636) 7 In Ebriosos (423) 7 
, 29. ά18}.} De Fide (185) 4 
» 82 (651) 8 In Princip. erat V. (248) 8 
δ 88 (963) 4 In Barlaam (141) — 
Ὁ 44 (687) 2 In Gordium (425) 6 
si 45 (407) 2 In XL Martyres (892) 10 
» 48 (682) 5 De Humilitate (358) 4 
‘ 59 (242) 4 Quod Mundanis (633) 1 
τ 61 (886) “--- Ad Adolescentes (627) 3 
. 114 (276) ἢ In Mamantem (244) — 

De Jejunio 1 (475) 3 Contra Sabellianos (444) 1 


Of repetitive paronomasia St. Basil is far more sparing than 
of epanaphora, the one other figure of its kind deserving even 
moderately the adjective “frequent”. 162 examples of repetitive 
paronomasia are found in the sermons—a total surprisingly 
small in so vigorous an orator. The cumulative character of 
many of the examples off-sets this small number to some extent 
and explains the reader’s impression that repetitive parono- 
masia is a constant favorite with St. Basil. The very strength 
of the figure in St. Basil’s hands attracts the attention to its 
use rather than its neglect, and thus blinds the casual reader 
to its infrequency. 

St. Basil certainly does not exhibit Asiatic excessiveness 
in the repetitious features of his rhetorical heritage. The 
elaborate length of some of his examples of epanaphora and 
repetitive paronomasia are an index of his possibilities in the 
direction of Asiatic exuberance rather than a general realization 
of that exuberance. Of antistrophe, anastrophe, kuklos, and 
climax I had not expected to find many examples. An 
oration studded with such unnatural gems would be a very 
flaring product indeed. But the pathetic anadiplosis might 
well re-appear many times in an unrestrained Asiatic. Its 
single exemplification here is in harmony with that moderateness 
which all the Figures of Repetition, each in their peculiar 
character, exhibit in St. Basil. 


CHAPTER VI 
FIGURES OF SOUND 


a) PaRONOMASIA. 


Although paronomasia is treated by some authorities as 
one of the Gorgianic Figures,! the facts that the Greek 
rhetoricians do not mention it among the Gorgianic Figures 
and that it does not receive the enthusiastic treatment in 
St. Basil that the undoubtedly Gorgianic Figures receive 
suggest its inclusion. among the minor figures of rhetoric. 
Paronomasia—a figure based on a.similarity in the sounds 
of words plus a dissimilarity in sense—is produced either by 
(a) the use of the same root with change of the prefixes or by 
(b) a word followed by its negative or by (c) a change in the 
voice of the verb or by (d) a word followed immediately or at an 
interval by another word of the same root. Obviously rhetorical 
design must be clearly established here in each case before 
a suspected case may be called genuine paronomasia. 

The following examples illustrate St. Basil’s use of the figure :— 
διὸ πρῶτον μὲν καμάτῳ συνέχεται ἐν TH συνεχεῖ κινήσει τὰ σύνθετα. --- 
Hex. 1,11B. Compare also Ps. 7, 105A; Ps. 28, 116C; Ps, 32, 
137B; Ps, 48, 182C; De Fide, 133A. 

- συμβαίνει σοι κατορύσσοντι τὸν πλοῦτον συγκατορύσσειν καὶ τὴν 
καρδίαν. .----- In Divites, 54B. Compare also De Jejunio 1, 5B; 
In Sanct. Baptisma, 115C; In Princip. erat V., 1350. 

— ἀπογράφηθι ἐν ταύτῃ τῇ βίβλῳ, ἵνα μεταγραφῇς εἰς τὴν ἄνω. ---- Τῇ Sanct. 
Baptisma, 120 Β. Compare also Hex. ὅ, 46C; Ps. 114, 2016. 

- ἐπανισταμένων ἀνθιστάμενος. --- De Humilitate, 161C. Compare 
also Ps, 29,127D; De Humilitate, 161 Ὁ. 





1 Blass II, 66; Robertson, 7; Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Epistula ad 
Ammaeum II. 


40 THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PATRISTIC STUDIES 


— χορεύεις ἀχόρευτα. ---- Τῇ Ebriosos, 129C. Compare also Ps. 14, 
108B; Ps. 28,116A; De Jejunio 2, 15C; In Ebriosos, 130 A. 


FREQUENCY OF PARONOMASIA IN THE SERMONS. 


Hex, 1°, (80) 7 De Jejunio 2 (330) 1 
Ὁ 2 (507) 1 Attende Tibiipsi (480) 1 
is 3 (565) 4 De Grat. Act. (459) 

‘s 4 (393) In Julittam (580) 
‘4 ὅ (570) 2 In Illud Lucae (406) 1 
‘ 6 (746) 2 In Divites (601. Ὁ 
ζ 7 (425) 8 In Fam. et Siccit. (584) 4 
Ἂ 8 (572) Deus “non est auct. (598) 
᾿ 9 (607) 1 Advers. Lratos (452) 2 

Ps. 1 (449) 1 De Invidia | (359) 1 
Ἂ 7 (541) 8 In Princip. Proverb. (895) 1 
tp 14 (872) 6 In Sanct. Baptisma (522) 4 
3 28 (636) 3 In Ebriosos (423) 3 
ms 29 (418) 1 De Fide (185) 4 
a 32 '(651) 3 In Princip. erat V. (248) 3 
i 33 (963) In Barlaam (141) 1 
ἡ 44 (687) 1 In Gordium (425) 2 
: 45 (407) 2 In XL Martyres (392) 

ὁ 48 (682) 5 De Humilitate (353) 10 
Ἦ 59 (242) Quod Mundanis (633) 
ἢ 61 (336) Ad Adolescentes (627) 1 


era bt abe ΕἾ ὁ 0} Ube’ In Mamantem (244) 
De Jejunio 1 (475) 1 Contra Sabellianos (444) 1 


A figure whose form is so readily confused with the mere 
accidents of inflection must yield numerous and striking in- 
stances to constitute a noteworthy element in an author’s style. 
Highty-nine examples in forty-six sermons, most of the examples 
rather common-place, with only one sermon yielding as many 
as ten examples, with eleven sermons yielding none, make not 
a remarkable contribution to the style of St. Basil. 


b) Ponyprorton. 
A form of paronomasia whose rhetorical design is far more 
patent is polyptoton—a word followed immediately, or after a 
short interval, by the same word in a different case. The 


FIGURES OF SOUND 41 


formula εἰς τοὺς αἰῶνας τῶν αἰώνων, which concludes most of the 

sermons, is of course not included here. It is a scriptural 

idiom and is considered more a formula than a figure. 

The following examples illustrate St. Basil’s use of Polypto- 
ton:—évtTa ἐν πᾶσι μέμικται---Ηοχ, 1, 8B. Compare also Hex. 3, : 
26B; Hex. 8, 78B; In Princip. Proverb., 109E. 

—pia τῆς μιᾶς nptyvrac—Hex. 8,77 D. Compare also Hex. 3, 27B; 
In Fam. et Siccit., 68 B. : 

—(partly Biblical) ἐπικατάρατος ἄνθμωπος ὁ τὴν ἐλπίδα ἔχων ἐπ᾽ ἄν- 
θρωπον ἢ ἐπί τι τῶν dvOpwrivev—Ps. 45, 171 Β. Compare also 
Ps. 28, 1147); In Princip. erat V., 185 Ὁ; De Humilitate, 
160 D; 

- πολλαὶ γὰρ ἀρχαὶ πολλῶν πραγμάτων--- [πῃ Princip. erat V., 135 A. 
Compare also Ad Adolescentes, 180. 


FREQUENCY OF PoLYPTOTON IN THE SERMONS. 


Hex. 1 (530) 4 . Ps. 45 (407) 2 
ee (507) 2 De Grat. Act. (459) 1 
» 3 (865) 5 In Divites (601) 1 
sary, 4. (393) 2 In Fam. et Siccit. (584) 1 
fe (570) 2 De Invidia (359) 1 
bees Ge (746) 4 In Princip. Proverb. (895) 2 
Pas (425) 2 In Ebriosos (423) 1 
ΩΣ Β (572) 3 In Princip. erat. V. (248) 4 
ae (507) 1 In Barlaam (141) 1 

Ps. 14 (372) 3 In Gordium (425) 1 
ὉΣΊΩΣ (636) 2 De Humilitate (353) 1 
"Ὁ 98 (661) 8 Ad Adolescentes (627) 1 
» 44 (687) 1 Contra Sabellianos (444) 2 


Even less numerous than paronomasia—fifty-three examples 
in all, with only one sermon containing as many as six ex- 
amples, and with twenty sermons containing none—polyptoton, 
despite its greater artificiality, contributes scarcely more to 
the style of St. Basil than paronomasia. The opportunities 
were there however. In a highly inflected language any practiced 
pupil of the Schools could use polyptoton in excess, even as 
St. Basil did in extreme moderation. Our orator leaves to 
other figures the proof of his inherent, perhaps unconscious, 
sophistic sympathies. 


42 THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PATRISTIC STUDIES 


c) ALLITERATION AND ASSONANCE. 


Alliteration—the recurrence of the same initial letter(s) in 
succeeding, usually immediately succeeding, words — requires 
great circumspection in treatment, because of accidental al- 
literative combinations bound to arise in language. At best 
the examples and statistics on this figure and on assonance 
are highly subjective. 

The following are representative examples of alliteration as 
found in the sermons:—éravubv ἐπισυρόμενος éripPovos—Hex. 5, 41 Εἰ. 
—8oddos τοῦ δεδανεικότος 6 Saverrdpevos—Ps. 14, 109 C. 

--- ἄτρεπτον, ἀναλλοίωτον, ἀπαθῆ, ἁπλῆν, ἀσύνθετον, ἀδιαίρετον ----1)6 Fide, 
131 D. 

--- πατὴρ παρεδίδου raita—In Gordium, 144A. 

The only other examples found occur in Hex. 2, 21C; Hex. 3, 
820; Hex. 4, 35B; Hex. 7, 68B; 68C; Ps. 1, 95D; Ps. 33, 
146E; In Illud Lucae, 49D; In Fam. et Siccit, 66C; 68H; 
72A; Deus non est auct., 76H; In Sanct. Baptisma, 121A; 
In XL Martyres, 152E; De Humilitate, 160D. 
Assonance—the intentional succession of words ending in 

similar sounds—is very rare in the sermons. The following is 

typical of its infrequent use:—r7 ὑπερβολῇ τοῦ κάλλους τοὺς ὀφθαλ- 

pots, Hex. 2,12B.—The only other examples occur in Hex. 1, 

7C; 11B; Hex. 2,17D. Nineteen instances of alliteration and 

four instances of assonance make a total almost negligible. 

But their very rarity in a product of the Second Sophistic is 

a noteworthy fact. 

d) PaRECHESIS. 


Parechesis—a similarity in the sound of words of different 
roots plus a dissimilarity of sense—may take any one of three 
forms: (a) words differing in accent or in a single letter; 
(b) combined in pairs; (c) not in pairs, not even necessarily 
in the same colon, but the assonance produced evidently de- 
signed. The first two forms are almost bound to be intentional. 
The third alone calls for scrupulous care.? 


Examples. 
Differing in accent—rotro ὑμῶν τὸ ἄρα 77—apG—Contra Sabel- 
hanos, 195A. 
2 Robertson, 23-24. 





FIGURES OF SOUND 43 


Differing both in accent and letter— θέας τοῦ θεοῦ--- Hex. 1, 2D 

Differing in letter arid word-length—ovvwdiar αὐτῶν καὶ συμφωνίαν 
ποιῶν ---Ῥ 5. 32, 133 B. 

--κατάῤῥυτος, διὰ τὴν ἄῤῥητον copiav—Hex. 3, 28C. 

--Ολυσσῶσιν---ἄττουσιν--- δάκνουσιν---Α ἄγογβ. Iratos, 8350. 

The only other examples found occur in Hex. 1, 20): Hex. 5, 
44D; Hex. 6,51C; 55B; Hex. 9,83E; 880; 88E; Ps. 32, 
139C; Attende Tibiipsi, 17B; In Divites, 60D; Advers. Ira- 
tos, 87D; In Sanct. Baptisma, 120C; In Gordium, 142C. 
These nineteen examples show only the traces of the sophistic 

predilection for devices of sound—an indication that Basil knew 

the figure, but not fondly. 

An excessive use of paronomasia and allied figures, the em- 
ploying of them merely for tonal effects gave to the language 
of Gorgias a stiffness, a lack of spontaneity that was a precept 
to his successors as to what must be avoided. With the revival 
of rhetoric under the Empire the figures of sound were again 
abused; so much so that the sense of many fine-sounding 
phrases of that time is dubious. With many sophists it became 
a fixed mental habit that when they must choose between 
clarity of expression and resonnance of expression, they in- 
variably chose the latter. This convention, so strongly in- 
trenched in the schools, is very marked in the works of 
St. Gregory Nazianzus,? St. Gregory of Nyssa,4 and in St. John 
Chrysostom’s panegyrical use of alliteration, polyptoton, and 
parechesis at least.6 St. Basil, compared with them, is far 
more restrained. In both the quality and number of sound- 
figures he shows a surprising indifference to the fashion of 
the times.6 Viewed by itself the evidence of this chapter is 
almost negative. But viewed in connection with the extreme 
fondness of the Second Sophistic for figures of sound, a fond- 
ness reflected in some of its Christian disciples, the negative 
results become a positive contribution. 





3 Guignet, 197. 

4 Méridier, 161. 

5 Ameringer, 33-35. 

6 Although neither Méridier nor Guignet nor Ameringer give statistics 
on these figures, their wealth of examples in each case and their comments 
and conclusions warrant the above statement. 


CHAPTER VII 


FIGURES OF VIVACITY; 
OTHER DEVICES OF COMPOSITION 


a) ASYNDETON. 


Asyndeton—a figure arising from the omission of conjunc- 
tions—produces a nervous warmth of tone suited to practical 
eloquence, to the stormy debates of republican politics and, 
by analogy, to any discourse inspired by a clash of principles. 
The absolute avoidance of asyndeton tends to produce mono- 
tony in a discourse. Its skillful use produces on the ear the 
sensation of rapidity. In its cumulative form it emphasizes 
the elements thus disconnected by setting them off sharply 
and clearly, by forcing a brief mental pause between them 
and thus driving the significance of the elements so set off 
more deeply into the mind. It also serves to reinforce the 
effect of other figures by the mere elimination of conjunctions 
which otherwise would claim some share of the attention. 

Noteworthy among a wealth of examples in St. Basil’s ser- 
mons are the following: Two asyndeta followed by one asyn- 
deton, with polysyndeton: πόντος Eivgewos καὶ Iporovris, ᾿Ελλήσπον- 
tos, Aiyaios καὶ Idvios, Σαρδονικὸν πέλαγος καὶ Σικελικὸν καὶ Τυῤῥηνικὸν 
ἕτερον--- Hex. 4, 36 E-37 A. 

Two-fold: ἄλλα---- θάλασσαν, 

ἄλλα---κόλπον, 

ἄλλα---νησιῶται--- Hex. 7, 64}. 
Three asyndetic clauses, the first clause containing a two-fold 
example in addition: 
—ot γάμοι τὰς ἀπαιδίας, Tas χηρείας, τὰς διαφθοράς" 

αἱ γεωργίαι τὴν dkapriav’ ai ἐμπορίαι τὰ ναυάγια" 

οἱ πλοῦτοι τὰς ἐπιβουλάς"--- Ῥ8. 33, 150C-D. Compare also In 

Mamantem, 188A; Contra Sabellianos, 1946. 


FIGURES OF VIVACITY; OTHER DEVICES OF COMPOSITION 45 


Two two-fold examples in succession: 

---ἡ μοιχεία, ἡ κλοπή, ἡ πορνεία μετὰ τῆς νυκτός, μετὰ τοῦ τρόπου, μετὰ 
τῶν χαρακτηριζόντων αὐτὴν ἰδιωμάτων---Ῥ 5. 48, 179 Ὁ. 

Fourteen-fold:—dvrwv ἐκείνη χώρα ἐν ἣ οὐκ ἔνι νύξ, οὐκ ἔνι ὕπνος τὸ 
τοῦ θανάτου μίμημα" ἐν ἣ οὐκ ἔνι βρῶσις, οὐκ ἔνι πόσις, τὰ τῆς ἀσ- 


θ ’ὔ δ' "δὲ ε td > # / > ΜΝ 3 ͵7 3 > 7 
EVELAS μων ὑπερείσματα, οὐκ EVL VOT OS, οὐκ EVE ἀλγήματα, οὐκ ἰατρεία» 


οὐ δικαστήρια, οὐκ ἐμπορίαι, οὐ τέχναι, οὐ χρήματα, τῶν κακῶν ἡ ἀρχή, 

ἡ ῥίζα τῆς &Opas—Ps. 114, 204 A-B. 

Seven asyndetic clauses containing one group of two asyndeta 
and one group of eight asyndeta:—ddes τὸ σῶμα σεαυτοῦ, ἄφες 
τὰς σωματικὰς αἰσθήσεις, κατάλειπε τὴν γῆν; κατάλειπε τὴν θάλασσαν, 


ε a λέ € ‘9 
τῶν ποόολέμὼν ὑπὸ ET LS, 


δ A ’ Ν 37 / Lf n > ig X\ 
κάτω σεαυτοῦ ποίησον τὸν ἀέρα, παράδραμε wpas, καιρὼν εὐταξίας, τὰς 


περὶ γῆν διακοσμήσεις" ὑπὲρ τὸν αἰθέρα γενοῦ" διάβηθι τοὺς ἀστέρας, 


Ν Ν 3 Ν θ 4 Ν > 7 7 A ‘ UA θ ἈΝ 7 
τὰ περὶ αὐτοὺς θαύματα, τὴν εὐκοσμίαν αὐτῶν, τὰ μεγέθη, τὰς χρείας 
ὅσας παρέχονται τῷ παντί, τὴν εὐταξίαν, τὴν λαμπρότητα, τὴν θέσιν, 


τὴν κίνησιν---1)6 Fide, 131C. 


Compare also Ps. 1,91A; In Julittam, 40C-D; In Divites, 
588: Deus non est auct., 75D-E; In Barlaam, 140 A-B; In 
Gordium, 144C; De Humilitate, 162 A-B. 


FREQUENCY OF ASYNDETON IN THE SERMONS. ! 








/1/2|8/4|5/6|7|/8/9| 10/11] 12/13] 14/15 | 16) 17 

Hex.1 (630) 2! [8 1 | 

, 8. (807) 1.862 

,.. 8. (665) 11 

, 4 (398) |1/1 

, 5 (670) [1|882 

. 8. (746) 2) [1 1 

, 7 (495) ΜΊδ[1|1 1 

. 8. (872) 41 

, 9 (07) [0[818]1 

Ps. 1 (449) 13/5/29 41} ὑπ} 

» 7 (641) 

,. 14 (81) 2|68]1 

, 28 (636) 8.23 

29 (18) [11 

, 82 (661) [1522 11 
























































1 The numbers that head the columns indicate the degree of multi- 
plicity of asyndetic ommissions; the number 3 for instance indicates that 
all examples tabulated in the NS below the number are of the three- 


fold variety. 


46 THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PATRISTIC STUDIES 






























































[112] 3 | 4/5) 6|7| 8} 9 |40/11)12)13)14/15)16|17 
Ps. 33 (963) [816] 9811 2 
, 44 (687) |1|2 
» 45 (407) [118] 2 
ἢ. 48 (682) 17} 
» 59 (242) 4 
el (336) | |1| 1/1 1 
, 114 (276) [12 1 1 
De Jejunio 1 (475) |9/3) 2) {3/1 2 
De Jejunio 2 (830) |2/8) 211,21 1 
Attende Tibiipsi (480) 4ὅ᾽ 8/3 4 
De Grat. Act. (459) |4 24 a 4/8 1 
In Julittam (580) | 3/3 1 1 1 
In Illud Lucae (406) [116] 2)3}1 1 
In Divites (601) 1[8[9] ὅ[4|1|4] [1 1 : 
In Fam. et Siccit. (584) |1/5/10| |2 2 
Deus non est auct. (598) 12] 1/1 1 1 
Advers. Iratos (452) 8} 1/1)2) |1 
De Invidia (359) 5| 4/2 1 
In Princip. Proverb. (895) 7 211 1 
In Sanct. Baptisma (522) 128, 2 412] 
In Ebriosos (423) [4.8] 7|182 1 1 
De Fide (185) | .2] δὅ[1{1] 1 1 1 1 
In Princip. erat V (248) 1 1 1 
In Barlaam (141) 2; 1 1 
In Gordium (425) [118] 2|1|3] |2 1 
In XL Martyres (392) |3/5| 5/2/2/4 
De Humilitate (353) 6] 2}1 1 
Quod Mundanis (633) 1 
Ad Adolescentes (627) 1 1 
In Mamantem (244) |4|2| 42 1 
Contra Sabellianos (444) [11] 3 


Of the larger combinations, one sermon contains an example 


of seventeen successive asyndeta; one sermon, an example of 


fifteen successive asyndeta; three sermons, an example of four- 
teen successive asyndeta; two sermons, an example of thirteen 
successive asyndeta. Arranging the less numerous combinations 
in succession from simple asyndeton to the twelve-fold variety, 
we obtain the following table. Each number above the line 
refers to the degree of multiplicity in each case; the number 
below the line to the frequency of occurrence in the sermons. 
11 


1 2 3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


12 





66 178 98 


4 28 


14 


18 


10 


2 


FIGURES OF VIVACITY; OTHER DEVICES OF COMPOSITION 47 


This table clearly shows St. Basil’s marked preference for the 
less elaborate varieties. The two-fold and three-fold varieties 
more than double the combined totals of the more cumulative 
kinds. That the two-fold out-number the one-fold is in harmony 
with the comparative ineffectiveness of the latter. That the 
discrepancy between them is not greater is surprising. 

Considering the opportunities for its display which the ser- 
mons afford, St. Basil is moderate in his employment of asyn- 
deton, and remarkably so in his use of the more elaborate 
forms. In these more than in the less elaborate varieties 
sophistic extravagance would manifest itself. The cumulative 
outbursts occur, but only rarely. The traces of the sophistic 
manner are evident, but only the traces. The utility of the 
figure for forceful exposition, its adequateness as a vehicle of 
expression for a vigorous personality largely account for its 
extensive but moderate use. 


b) PonysyNnDETON. 


Polysyndeton—the artistic multiplication of connectives—im- 
presses on the style a calm movement, a character of grandeur 
proper to academic eloquence. The accumulation of con- 
junctions makes for deliberateness. It draws attention to each 
separate element thus connected. Only instances of two or 
more successive conjunctions may be considered figures. The 
following are interesting and typical of the more elaborate 
examples. 

Followed by asyndeton:—érAq καὶ ἅρματα καὶ ἵππους καὶ ὑπηκόους 
καὶ χώραν ὑπόφορον, τὴν ᾿Αραβίαν πᾶσαν, τὴν Φοινίκην, τὴν Μέσην τῶν 
ποταμῶν ---- 5. ὅ9, 189 Ε.. Compare also De Fide, 181 Εἰ. 

-- κἂν---, κἂν----, κἂν---, κἂν---, xav—. In Sanct. Baptisma, 118 E. 
Compare also Ps. 32, 1848. 

Eleven-fold:—éorw σοι καὶ σχῆμα καὶ ἱμάτιον καὶ βάδισμα καὶ καθέδρα 
καὶ τροφῆς κατάστασις καὶ στρωμνῆς παρασκευὴ καὶ οἶκος καὶ τὰ ἐν οἴκῳ 
σκεύη πάντα πρὸς εὐτέλειαν ἠσκημένα' καὶ λόγος καὶ φδὴ καὶ ἡ τοῦ πλησίον 
ἔντευξις καὶ ταῦτα.----[) 6 Humilitate, 161 E-162A. 

Four-fold followed by five-fold:—ceopol τε καὶ ἐπικλύσεις καὶ 
στρατοπέδων͵ ἀπώλειαι καὶ ναυάγια καὶ πᾶσαι πολυάνθρωποι φθοραὶ εἴτε ἐκ 
γῆς εἴτε ἐκ θαλάσσης εἴτε ἐξ ἀέρος 7 πυρὸς ἢ ἐξ ὁποιασοῦν airias—Deus 
non est auct., 76D. 


48 THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PATRISTIC STUDIES 


Hight-fold:—Aos καὶ φάραγξι καὶ κρημνοῖς καὶ σκοπέλοις καὶ σκό- 
λοψιν ἥπου καὶ θηρίοις καὶ ἑρπετοῖς καὶ ἀκάνθαις καί τισιν ἄλλοις.---- 


Compare also Hex. 3, 32D; Hex. 8, 70 E-71A. 


FREQUENCY OF POLYSYNDETON IN THE SERMONS. 









































1/2/8|4/5/6|7]8{9)10/11 
Hex. 1 (680) ὯΙ ΦΤΤΗΣ | 
Sey eae (507) 5} 21 
eee (565) 9; 4;2)1 1 
ΣΕ (393) 2; rj} 1 
eee (570) 7; 8}4/1]1 
"τὸ (746) 8) 38 1 
my (425) 7 4| 3 1 
See ὟΝ (572) 8] 6 1 1 
ee (507) 4) 5/2) 1 
Pend (449) 5] 6 1 1 
ae: | (541) 10| 3 1 
» 14 (372) 5; 11 
» 28 (636) 6; 5 3 
» 29 (418) 4; 2 1 
» 32 (651) 7| 4 
» 98 (963) 7} 613 
» 44 (687) 7| 2 2 
», 4ὅ (407) 0,1 
» 48 (682) 8 2 
, ὅθ (242) 2] 48 
» 61 (336) 4 1 
» 114 (276) 
De Jejunio 1 (475) 41 
De Jejunio 2 (330) 6 1 
Attende Tibiipsi (480) 4| 3/1 1 
De Grat. Act. (459) 6; 3/2 
In Julittam (580) 11| 9 1 
In Illud Lucae (406) 5; 1 
In Divites (601) 8| 6 1 
In Fam. et Siccit. (584) 58] 2 
Deus non est auct. (598) 5| 3 | 1 1 
Advers. Iratos. (452) 5} 1 | 1 
De Invidia (359) ὅ) 8, 4 
In Princip. Proverb. (895) Δ ΝΠ. 
In Sanct. Baptisma (622) 8 eric 
In Ebriosos (423) 8} 4181 
De Fide (185) 3/ 1) 1 
In Princip. erat V. (248) 5| 2 
In Barlaam (141) ὶ 


FIGURES OF VIVACITY; OTHER DEVICES OF COMPOSITION 49 









































1/2/);3/4/5 6/7|8|9 10/11 
In Gordium (425) 3; 4} 1 
In XL Martyres (392) 6 1 1 
De Humilitate (353) 9| 6 1 
Quod Mundanis (633) 11/10; 2} 1 
Ad Adolescentes (627) 11| 5 1 
In Mamantem (244) 4 
Contra Sabellianos (444) 4) 2 





A more concise summary of the above table is the following. 
Each number above the line refers to the degree of multipli- 
city in each case; the number below the line to the frequency 
of occurrence in the sermons. 

2 3 4 5 6 7 9 11 


270 143 41 22 6 3 1 1 


Here, as in asyndeton, the tendency to more examples of the 
less elaborate type is the rule. The most ambitious example 
is an eleven-fold polysyndeton. The three-fold and two-fold 
varieties outnumber all the rest combined by a ratio of nearly 
six to one, while the two-fold alone outnumbers all the rest 
easily. These statistics show that the tendency toward less 
multiplex figures is far more pronounced in polysyndeton than 
in asyndeton. The deliberateness caused by the large accumu- 
lation of conjunctions is less suited to the vigorous delivery 
of St. Basil than the swiftly-moving asyndeton. This to some 
extent explains what would otherwise be attributed merely 
to restraint in rhetorical indulgence. Despite its more ex- 
tensive variation and more extended use, asyndeton outnumbers 
polysyndeton by only forty-eight examples. 

St. Basil, due to his sophistic education or to the solemnity 
inspired by the grandeur of his theme, becomes almost pon- 
derous on occasion. But this is not an abiding characteristic. 
Vigor of thought and vigor of delivery preclude the elaborately 
cumulative polysyndeton. St. Basil’s numerous but restrained 
examples arise chiefly from the exigencies of exposition, em- 
ploying a time-proven device in his rhetorical heritage. 





c) RHETORICAL QUESTIONS. 


The rhetorical question—a form of interrogation put not for 


information but for effect—in its several uses is an excellent 
4 


50 THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PATRISTIC STUDIES 


index to an author’s style. Its generous employment imparts 
an unmistakable liveliness to an oration. Hatred, compassion, 
astonishment, indignation, pathos find the rhetorical question 
an ideal vehicle. In its cumulative form it is a powerful means 
of emphasis—through the repetition of the same thought from 
several angles differing but slightly. For glossing over a weak 
point in an argument, a rapid—fire of questions is an effective 
weapon. The orator, by an avalanche of bold, challenging 
questions, gives the illusion of having successfully established 
a weak point. The single rhetorical question gives a statement 
more vividness than its simple enunciation. In passages heavy 
with thought this device holds the hearer’s attention by its 
challenge and stimulates his curiosity by its suggestion. It 
may also be used in place of a conditional clause. The follow- 
ing are noteworthy examples. 

An appeal: τί μακρὰν ἀποτρέχεις τῆς ἀληθείας, ἄνθρωπε, ἀφορμὰς σεαυτῷ 
τῆς ἀπωλείας ἐπινοῶν ;--- Hex. 2, 15E. Compare also Hex. 7, 680. 

A challenge: πέποιθας ἐπὶ Kipiovj—Hex. 9, 86 D. Compare also 
Advers. Iratos, 86 C. 

Question proposing a subject:—zois ἐστι βούλει διηγήσομαι;--- 
«Ps. 33, 151C-D. Compare Ps. 44, 160 A. 

--Οἰβούλει σοι καὶ ἕτερον πλοῦν διηγήσομαι, πρὸς ὃν ἀναγκαῖον ἡμῖν ἐστι 
τὸ δῶρον τῆς κυβερνήσεως.---ἴῃ Princip. Proverb., 112 A. 

Addressing the! Dead:—vi σε, ᾧ γενναῖε τοῦ Χριστοῦ στρατιῶτα, προ- 
σείπω; ἀνδριάντα καλέσω :---Τὰ Barlaam, 141 A. 

Vivid presentation of ἀθίβι]β: ---- ποῦ δὲ αἱ podoPides; ποῦ δὲ αἱ 
μάστιγες;---Τὰ Gordium, 145 E. 

Conditional:— πλούσιος εἶ, μὴ δανείζου, πένης εἶ. μὴ Saveihov.—Ps. 
14, 1106. 

---ἐλοιδόρησας; εὐλόγησον. ἐπλεονέκτησας; ἀπόδος. ἐμεθύσθης, νήστευσον. 
ἠλαζονεύσω; ταπεινώθητι. ἐφθόνησας: παρακάλεσον. ἐφόνευσας: μαρτύ- 
pnoov.— Ps. 82, 133 A. Compare also Ps. 33, 162 Εἰ; Ps 59, 
192 K. 

---ὠἀδικῶς κολάζῃ; τῇ τῶν μελλόντων ἐλπίδι χαῖρε. δικαίως κατεδικάσθης; 
καὶ οὕτως εὐχαρίστει.--- Τὰ Julittam, 39 D. 

Compare also Ps. 14, 110B; 110} 1120; Ps. 33, 1570; 
Ps. 45, 171A; De Jejunio 1, 10B; De Jejunio 2, 11D; De 
Grat. Act., 32C; In Julittam, 35 E; In Fam. et Siccit., 67 ΕἸ; 
In Mamantem, 188 E. 


FIGURES OF VIVACITY; OTHER DEVICES OF COMPOSITION 51 


Exclamatory:—® τῆς ἀχαριστίας--- οὐκ ἐπιτρέπεις :--- Hex. 9, 88 Ὁ. 
-- ὦ πόσους ἀπώλεσε τὰ ἀλλότρια ἀγαθά; πόσοι ὄναρ πλουτήσαντες ὑπερ-- 
απήλαυσαν τῆς Cnpéas;—Ps. 14, 112 C. 
—® πόσας νύκτας εἰκῇ ἠγρυπνήσατε, πόσας ἡμέρας εἰκῆ συνηθροίσθητε; 
—In Ebriosos, 122E. 
Compare also Hex. 4, 34A; Hex. 5, 43D; Hex. 8, 78H; Ps. 45, 
174D; In Illud Lucae, 48C; In Sanct. Baptisma, 116C. 


FREQUENCY OF RHETORICAL QUESTIONS IN THE SERMONS. 





















































1|2 | 8 4 5| 6 7|8| 9 |10j11}12/18)14/15/16 
Hex. 1 (630) | 3| 8. 

jee’ (507) | 6| 1/1 1 

nee (565) | 7| 8 

eh (393) | 41 

ἘΠΕ (ὅ70) |14| 2 

oe .0 (746) | 8| ἃ.2) |2)1 

ἀρ (425) | 8| 1 3 

a (572) | 6, 4 1 

Δ ΣΕ" (607) [14] 7 

Ps. 1 (449) | 2| 311 

Sache (541) | 2 

it ae (372) 117] 4 

» 28 (636) | 1] 1 

» 29 (418) | 4] 4 

“= ae (651) | 6| 2/1} {1/2 

Ὁ 88 (963) [10] 2 

, 44 (687) | 7 

» 45 (407) | 81 

» 48 (682) | 4) 213 

» 59 (242) | 3; 1 

, 61 (836) | 2| 1 
| » 114 (276) | 1| 1 
De Jejunio 1 (475) | 4] 6/2)2/1 
De Jejunio 2 (330) | 3| 3/2 
Attende Tibiipsi (480) | ὅ! 1/2 1/1 1 
De Grat. Act. (459) | 5) 4] 182 
In Julittam (680) | 9| 3/1 1 
In Illud Lucae (406) [10] 4 511 
In Divites (601) | 21)10)3/1/2/1/1/1 
In Fam. et Siccit. (684) | 5] 3/4/2/1 
Deus non est auct. (598) | 6] 1 11 1 
Advers. Iratos (452) [18] 2/3/1 
De Invidia_ . (359) | 8] 7/3 
In Princip. Proverb. (895) | 8 1 


4* 


52 THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PATRISTIC STUDIES 


















































12,84 δὅ07|8 9 |10)11/12)13)14/15)16 
In Sanct. Baptisma (522) [22] 5 |3/2/3 
In Ebriosos (423) | 12) 6 |2/2 8 
De Fide (185) | 2 
In Princip. erat V. (248) | δ, 4 
In Barlaam (141) | 3 
Τὴ Gordium (425) | 718 /2/1 
In XL Martyres (892) | 9; 2/1/}1 
De Humilitate (353) | 4 
Quod Mundanis (633) | 8/3 
Ad Adolescentes (627) [141 
In Mamantem (244) | 4 2 1 
Contra Sabellianos (444) | 617 /2 1 





A more concise summary of the above table illustrates force- 
fully the tendency toward more examples of the less multiplex 
type. In the following summary each number above the line 
refers to the degree of multiplicity; each number below the 
line to the frequency of a given type in the sermons. 


1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 16 
332 123 43 23 14 6 2 9 1 





The single question and the sets of two successive questions 
outnumber all the rest by a ratio of nearly five to one, while 
the single question alone outnumbers all the rest easily. These 
statistics, as in asyndeton and polysyndeton, show the same 
tendency towards more examples of the less multiplex kinds. 
In its cumulative form, St. Basil exhibits traditional restraint 
in his use of the figure. He shows a desire for emphasis, but 
not over-emphasis. The one sixteen-fold example is especially 
prominent in its loneliness. St. Basil resorts to the figure 
six hundred and fifty-one times in all its forms. It thus 
becomes a prominent feature of his style and further empha- 
sizes that liveliness in discourse which his use of asyndeton 
indicates. 


ἃ) Excnamartio. 


Scarcely differing in form from the exclamatory rhetorical 
question and producing the same effect is exclamatio. 
Examples:—6 τῆς σοφῆς ἐπινοίας τοῦ didacxédov!—Ps. 1, 91 B. . 
—© τῆς ἀτοπίας τῶν Aéyov!—In Sanct. Baptisma, 116C. 


FIGURES OF VIVACITY; OTHER DEVICES OF COMPOSITION 53 


- ὦ χορὸς ἅγιος! ὦ σύνταγμα ἱερόν! ὦ συνασπισμὸς ἀῤῥαγής! ὦ κοινοὶ 
φύλακες τοῦ γένους τῶν ἀνθρώπων !---[ XL Martyres, 156 Β. 
The other examples occur in Ps. 14, 118 B; In Illud Lucae, 

46 Εἰ; 48 A; In Fam. et Siccit., 65B; In Sanct. Baptisma, 116A; 

116B; 121H-122A; In XL Martyres, 151A; 155A; 155B; 

In Barlaam, 140C; 140D. 

Formal exclamatio, in its very nature, could not appear 
frequently without giving a very eccentric stamp to an author’s 
style. The same effect is attained more naturally by the 
rhetorical question. Exclamatio is almost negligible in St. Basil. 


e) PARENTHESIS AND HyposTROPHE. 


Parenthesis—the interruption of the development of a sen- 
tence’s thought by an intervening clause or clauses—is here 
treated merely for the sake of completeness. Most of the 
examples found are dubious as purposed figures and the total 
is not large enough in any case to warrant positive conclusions. 
Examples:—ovdé γὰρ ὁ κύκλος οὗτος (τὸ ἐπίπεδον λέγω σχῆμα τὸ ὑπὸ 

μιᾶς γραμμῆς περιεχόμενον) ἐπειδὴ διαφεύγει τὴν ἡμετέραν αἴσθησιν. ---- 

Hex.1,4A. Compare also Ps. 28, 121 Β; Ps. 114, 203E. 
-καὶ ὥσπερ ἐν τῇ μεγάλῃ οἰκίᾳ τὸ μέντοι χρυσοῦν ἐστι σκεῦος... ... 

(τῆς προαιρέσεως ἑκάστου τὴν πρὸς τὰς ὕλας ὁμοιότητα παρεχομένης" 

καὶ χρυσοῦν μέν ἐστι σκεῦος, ὁ καθαρὸς τὸν τρόπον καὶ ἄδολος" ἀργυ- 

ροῦν δέ, ὁ ὑποδεέστερος ἐκείνου κατὰ τὴν ἀξίαν" ὀστράκινον δέ, ὃ τὰ 
γήϊνα φρονῶν καὶ πρὸς συντριβὴν ἐπιτήδειος" καὶ ξύλινον, ὃ εὐκόλως 
διὰ τῆς ἁμαρτίας καταῤῥυπούμενος καὶ ὕλη γινόμενος τῷ αἰωνίῳ Tupi): 

οὕτω καὶ ὀργῆς oxedos—Deus non est auct., 77 B-C. 


FREQUENCY OF PARENTHESIS IN THE SERMONS. 


Hex.1 (530) 8 Ps. 32 (651) 1 
eae BOT) 1 , 44 (687) 4 
Se. (QR A , 48 (682) .2 
ae (570) 1 » 114 (276) 1 
NE | (425) 1 De Jejunio 2 (330) 1 
que (672) 4 Attende Tibiipsi (480) 1 
» 9 (507) 1 In Julittam (580) ὅ 

Ps, 14 (B72). 1 In Fam. et Siccit. (584) 2 
my (636) 2 Deus non est auct. (598) 3 
ee 9 (418) 1 Advers. I[ratos (452) 1 


54 THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PATRISTIC STUDIES 


De Invidia (359) 1 De Humilitate (353) 1 
In Princip. Proverb. (895) 4 Ad Adolescentes (627) 4 
In Sanct. Baptisma (522) 1 In Mamantem (244) 2 
In Gordium (425) 1 Contra Sabellianos (444) 4 


In XL Martyres (392) 1 


Of hypostrophe—the resumption of thought after a paren- 
thesis by either repetition or a demonstrative—only two ex- 
amples were found in the sermons:—6 γὰρ ὑποκείμενος τῷ φύλλῳ 
κόκκος, ὃν μισχόν τινες τῶν περὶ τὰς ὀνοματοποιίας ἐσχολακότων προσαγο- 
ρεύουσι, τοῦτο σπέρματος ἔχει δύναμιν.--- Ηόχ. 5, 45 B. 

--΄Αὑπὲρ ‘wv, ὑπὲρ τὰς τῶν ἀστέρων χορείας τετιμημένος (τίς γὰρ τῶν 
οὐρανῶν εἰκὼν εἴρηται τοῦ θεοῦ τοῦ ὑψίστου,. .. ... ) ὑπὲρ οὖν ταῦτα 
ταῖς τιμαῖς προηγμένος ὃ ἄνθρωπος--- 8. 48, 185 A-B. 

Parenthesis is a phenomenon whose frequent appearance is 
not to be expected. At its best it is a stylistic mannerism. 
Fifty-three examples in the forty-six sermons, most of the ex- 
amples short and not followed by hypostrophe, do not make a 
striking total either in number or quality. These examples may 
more reasonably be attributed to an absence of finished pre- 
paration than to the cultivation of a device of the older rhetoric. 


f) Lirores. 


Litotes—the emphatic affirmation of an idea through negation 
of its opposite—derives some rhetorical emphasis from the 
double negative thus arising. 

Examples :—ovéé eis. Hex. 1, 3A. Compare also Ps. 114, 199 B; 

In Sanct. Baptisma, 117A; In Barlaam, 138 E. 

- ὥστε οὐχ ἁμαρτήσεις τῆς dAnOeias.—Hex. 2,12 E. Compare also 

Hex. 9, 83E; Ps. 59, 190 Εἰ; In Princip. erat V., 134C. 
--καὶ Χριστιανῶν δὲ πλῆθος οὐκ ὀλίγον.---Τῇ Gordium, 144E. Com- 

pare also Hex, 8, 79 B; Attende Tibiipsi, 17C; De Invidia, 95 D. 


FREQUENCY OF LITOTES IN THE SERMONS. 


Hex. 1 (530) 1 Hex. 6 (746) 6 
oD GOT τὰ , ERY (498) ἃ 
ἀξ. 3. S66). B 1S? Os 
oe: SB Syl: (BOB 0, νά 
fee (OAL Ps. 1 (49 1 


FIGURES OF VIVACITY; OTHER DEVICES OF COMPOSITION 55 


Pae-F (541) 1 In Divites (601) 1 
» 14 (372) 1 De Invidia (359). 1 
ite (636) 1 In Princip. Proverb. (895) 4 
ae ge (418) 1 In Sanct. Baptisma (522) 1 
» 44 (687) 3 In Princip. erat V. (248) 1 
oe (242) 1 In Barlaam (141) 1 
, 114 (276) 3 In Gordium (425) 3 
De Jejunio 2 (330) 8 De Humilitate (353) 1 
Attende Tibiipsi (480) 1 Ad Adolescentes (627) 10 
In Julittam (580) 1 In Mamantem (244) 1 


Seventy-three examples do not constitute litotes a prominent 
feature of St. Basil’s style. His love of pleonasm took another 
form. When he wished to be emphatic he sought more vigorous 
modes of expression. There are merely enough examples here 
to show the influence of rhetoric unconsciously working. 


g) Irony AND SARCASM. 


Of irony and sarcasm there is very little in St. Basil’s 
sermons. This is rather surprising in so vehement a champion 
of the church. Apparently he preferred direct, open blows to 
the fine thrusts of covert verbiage. | 
Examples:—Seaxvirwoav ἡμῖν οἱ τὰ πάντα Sevot,—Hex. 3, 29 Β. (re- 

ferring to certain contemporary scientists). Compare also 

Ps. 14,113 A; 113 B. 

---πολλή σοι χάρις THs φιλοτιμίας ὅτι ἐν TH μνήματι κείμενος καὶ εἰς γῆν 
διαλυθείς, ἁδρὸς γέγονας ταῖς δαπάναις καὶ μεγαλόψυχος. ---- [πὰ Divites, 
60 B-C. Compare also In Sanct. Baptisma, 121 D. 

The only other examples occur in Hex. 8, 71D; In Fam. et 
Siccit., 66 B-C. 





The figures which follow grew out of the practical needs of 
early eloquence. Their more subtle uses were developed in the 
uncertain struggles of the agora and court-room. Their later 
use indicates a revival of the form more than the spirit of the 
figures, as a whole. Elements of clearness, however, which in 
_ the earlier periods of rhetoric served only a secondary pur- 
pose, became for certain figures the justification of their later 
employment. The history of prosopopoiia illustrates such an 
evolution. 


56 THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PATRISTIC STUDIES 


h) Draporesis. 


Diaporesis—an uncertainty, largely feigned, as to where to 
begin, where to leave off, what to say—is a convention origi- 
nally designed to win the good will of the audience by a saving 
modesty. It also serves to awaken the audience’s attention 
by pointing out the difficulty and grandeur of the theme to 
be developed. Its favorite position is therefore in the intro- 
duction to an oration or to some new phase of an oration 
already partially delivered. While St. Basil was undoubtedly 
affected by convention in his use of the figure, there is yet to 
be discerned in his examples a devout Christian’s awe of the 
splendor of his themes. 

Examples:—iornoi pov τὸν λόγον τὸ θαῦμα THs διανοίας" τί πρῶτον 
εἴπω; πόθεν ἄρξομαι τῆς ἐξηγήσεως ---Ηοκχ. 1, 2 ΕἸ. 
--τίς ἐξαρκέσει χρόνος πάντα εἰπεῖν καὶ διηγήσασθαι τοῦ τεχνίτου τὰ 

Gatpora.—Hex. 9, 83 C. 

- ὅπως δὲ δυσθήρατος τῆς λέξεως ταύτης ὁ νοῦς, παντὶ γνώριμον τῷ καὶ 

μικρὸν ἐπιστήσαντι.---[π Princip. Proverb., 97 E. 

A remarkable instance of the figure occurs at the beginning 
of In Mamantem, 185A, where the orator finds thirty-two lines 
of Benedictine text necessary for the expression of his un- 
worthiness to pronounce the panegyric. The only other ex- 
amples in St. Basil occur in Hex. 2,12A; 19D; Hex. 5, 42H; 
Hex. 8, 74E; In Divites, 58D; In Sanct. Baptisma, 114); In 
Mamantem, 185 C. 

The sparsity of examples—only eleven in all—points to some- 
thing else than the mere following of a convention. The gran- 
deur of his themes is a matter of concern to St. Basil. The 
only glaring example measuring up to a truly sophistic standard 
(In Mamantem, 185 A) is in this figure as in so many other 
figures in St. Basil significant for its solitude—a reflex of that 
scholastic rhetoric whose extravagances St. Basil generally 
repressed. 

i) EprmiortTHosis. 

Confined chiefly to the Hexaémeron, epidiorthosis—the cor- 
recting or restricting of a previous assertion—occurs in St. Basil 
so infrequently and so imperfectly that it is almost without 
rhetorical significance in the sermons. Its original purpose 


FIGURES OF VIVACITY; OTHER DEVICES OF COMPOSITION 57 


was to present the illusion of great scrupulousness on the part 

of the speaker. This purpose is not to be discerned in St. Basil’s 

use of it. The instances found in his pages probably spring 
from a lack of thorough preparation. 

Examples: ὡς ἀνθρώπῳ ἰδεῖν δυνατόν, μᾶλλον δὲ ὡς oddevt τῶν ἄλλων 
ὑπῆρξε.--- Ηδχ. 1,2C. Compare also Hex. 2, 15 Ὁ. 

— μὲν φωνὴ τοῦ προστάγματος μικρά, μᾶλλον δὲ οὐδὲ φωνή, ἀλλὸ 
ῥοπὴ μόνον καὶ ὁρμὴ τοῦ θελήματος.--- Ηχ. 7, 68 Ὁ. Compare also 
Quod Mundanis, 1700. 

The only other instances of its use occur in Hex. 1, 3D; 
7A;7D; Hex. 2,18B; 19A;21A; 22 Α; Hex. 6, 60A; Hex. 8, 
79A; De Jejunio 1,3D; Attende Tibiipsi, 24C; In Julittam, 
33 B. 

j) ProkatTaLersis. 

Of prokataleipsis—a device for breaking the force of possible 
objections by anticipating or refuting them—all examples save 
four were found in the Hexaémeron. 

Examples :---ὠἀλλ᾽ of παραχαράκται τῆς GAnOeias .... τὴν ὕλην φασὶ διὰ 
τῶν λέξεων τούτων παραδηλοῦσθαι.--- Ηοχ. 2, 13 Β. 

- πάντως δὲ οὐδεὶς ὑμῶν οὐδὲ τῶν πάνυ κατησκημένων τὸν νοῦν... 
ἐπισκήψει τῇ δόξῃ, ὡς ἀδύνατα ἢ πλασματώδη ὑποτιθεμένων κατὰ τὸν 
λόγον.--- Hex. 3, 26 E. 

--Ῥκαὶ πῶς σύμφωνα ταῦτα, φασί, τῷ, Πάντοτε xaipere;—De Grat. Act., 28 B. 
The remaining examples of the figure may be found in Hex. 

1,13 B; Hex. 2,14D; 15C; Hex. 3, 25A; 81 Β; Hex. 4, 34B; 

35.E; 36A; Hex. ὅ, 48 Ε|; 45A; Hex. 6, 51 Εἰ; 51E; Ps. 1,92D; 

In Julittam, 36 C-D; Deus non est auct., 75 A. 
Prokataleipsis is almost negligible in the sermons. 


k) PaRALeErpsis. 


Paraleipsis in a strict sense—the insinuation of all one wishes 
to say while pretending to pass the poiht over in silence—is 
not found in St. Basil. Very infrequently a weaker, allied form 
of the figure is represented—the hint of an abundance of ar- 
guments held in reserve. 

Examples:—ra μὲν οὖν περὶ ἀρχῆς, ὡς ὀλίγα ἀπὸ πολλῶν εἰπεῖν, ἐπὶ 

τοσοῦτον,--- Hex. 1, 7 B. 

—kai τί δεῖ λέγειν τῶν λοιπῶν παθῶν τὸν ὄχλον; (and then there 

follows an enumeration of them).—In Ebriosos, 125 A. 


58 THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PATRISTIC STUDIES 


The only other examples found occur in Hex. 1,8D; Hex. 
3, 28 A. 

1) Prosopoporta. 

Prosopopolia—the representation of a person speaking direct- 
ly—depends for its highest effects upon the histrionic talents 
of the orator. Such a reproduction under any circumstances 
lends vivacity to the discourse. The rhetorical exercises of the 
schools encouraged the device in professional practice. A figure 
allowing so rich an opportunity for the display of dramatic 
talent was not to be lost on the sophists of the Second So- 
phistic. : 

The large number of examples found in the sermons includes 
many so Closely allied with other figures that a careful excision 
has been necessary. All scriptural excerpts in the first person 
have been excluded in virtue of that distinction which obtains 
between a quotation from an author and the representation 
of him speaking directly. For the same reason the recon- 
structions of Prodicus of Ceos and of Pythagoras, in Ad 
Adolescentes, 177 E and 182 D, respectively, have been omitted. 
Examples exegetical in character have been included, parti- 
cularly those found in the homilies on the various psalms, but 
it has been thought well to present them separately in the 
statistics below. While not as a rule excellent examples of 
prosopopoiia, the exegetical instances certainly come under its 
definition. To exclude them would be to ignore a few elaborate 
examples of the figure and to over-look the most important 
device in St. Basil’s development of the Homilies on the Psalms. 
The best examples were found in the homilies on the martyrs 
in the midst of ecphrases. Indeed prosopopoiia constitutes 
the major portion of some ecphrases. 

Examples. Short:—xal ποῖον, φησί, τοῦτο δάνεισμα ᾧ τῆς ἀποδόσεως 
ἐλπὶς οὐ συνέζευκται;---Ῥ5. 14, 112E. Compare also Hex. 9, 87 E; 
In Illud Lucae, 44E; In Divites, 57B; Contra Sabellianos, 
192A; 195A. 

Dialogue or Debate:—éyes χαλκώματα, ἐσθῆτα, ὑποζύγιον, σκεύη παν- 
τοδαπά: ταῦτα ἀπόδου" πάντα προέσθαι κατάδεξαι, πλὴν τῆς ἐλευθερίας. 
ἀλλ᾽ αἰσχύνομαι αὐτὰ δημοσιεύειν, φησίν. τί οὖν ὅτι μικρὸν ὕστερον 
ἄλλος αὐτὰ προκομίσει καὶ ἀποκηρύξει τὰ σὰ καὶ ἐν ὀφθαλμοῖς σοῖς 
ἐπευωνίζων αὐτὰ διαθήσεται j—Ps. 14, 109 A. 


FIGURES OF VIVACITY; OTHER DEVICES OF COMPOSITION 59 


Compare also Hex. 6, 55C; Ps. 14, 112C; In Illud Lucae, 
49B; In Divites, 53A; Deus non est auct., 81A; In Sanct. 
Baptisma, 119 D. 

Exegetical:—épe?- ἡ βοήθειά pov οὐκ ἐκ πλούτου, οὐδὲ ἐκ σωματικῶν 
ἀφορμῶν, οὐδὲ ἐκ δυνάμεως καὶ ἰσχύος ἐμῆς, οὐδὲ ἐκ συγγενείας ἀνθρωπίνης, 
ἀλλ᾽ Ἣ βοήθειά μου παρὰ τοῦ Geov.—Ps. 7, 1046. 

Compare also Ps. 7, 108 ΕἸ; Ps. 33,146B-C; 149A; 149B; 
Ps. 114, 201C-D; Quod Mundanis, 171 D-E. 

In Ecphrasis:—xdéra, φησί, δημίους, ποῦ δὲ ai μολυβίδες:. ποῦ δὲ 
ai μάστιγες; ἐπὶ τροχοῦ κατατεινέσθω, ἐπὶ τοῦ ξύλου στρεβλούσθω, φερέσθω 
τὰ κολαστηρία" τὰ θηρία, τὸ πῦρ, τὸ ξίφος, ὁ σταυρός, ὁ βόθρος εὐτρε- 
πιζέσθω. ἀλλὰ γὰρ οἷα κερδαίνει, φησίν, ἅπαξ μόνον ἀποθνήσκων ὁ ἀλι- 
thpws;—In Gordium, 145 E. 

Compare also In Fam. et Siccit., 69A; In Sanct. Baptisma, 
122 A-B; In Barlaam, 140C; In Gordium, 145D-E; 145E; 
146A; 146B-C; 147B; 147 C-D; 147D-148E; In XL Mar- 
tyres, 151A; 151 B-C; 153B-E; 154A; 156A. 

Other interesting examples are the prosopopoiia of fish in 
Hex. 7, 67 A-C; of a dog, Hex. 9, 84D; of the hearts of St. Basil’s 
auditors in Hex. 9, 86 Εἰ; of the musings of a bankrupt father 
forced to sell one of his children in In Illud Lucae, 46 D-47A; 
of personified procrastination in In Sanct. Baptisma, 118C-D. 
Ps. 14 abounds in excellent examples—of a stingy man forging 
an excuse against giving aid, 108A; of a man oppressed with 
debts and his prudent counsellor, 109A-B; of a disillusioned 
debtor crying out upon the usurer, 109C; of a hard-pressed 
man beholding the opulence of others, 110D; the wife of a 
debt-ridden man states her extravagant needs, 112A. 


FREQUENCY OF ῬΒΟΒΟΡΟΡΟΙΙΑ IN THE SERMONS. 
































ὁ ἢ 8 ὃ 
εξ ΕΞ ὃ 
ὉΠ: ΓΝ 
ΦΙΒΩ. ΠΣ 
Hex. 1 (680) Hex. 7 (425) | 1 | 
» 8 (07) , 8. (672) | 
, 8 (665) amon 4. 
τ (803) Ps. 1 (449) | 1 
, B (670) | 2 , ~~ (641) 4 
» 86. (746) 1 2 Lag (979) 149 


60 THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PATRISTIC STUDIES 


























“ aia 
αξ Pea: 
z =| ® Ὁ ἢ 
ὃ ἢ AL: 
Ps. 28 (636) 1 || In Fam. et Siccit. (584) 1 
» 29 (418) 3 || Deus non est auct. (598) 2 
» o2 (651) 2} Ad Iratos (452) 
» 99 (963) 2 [6] De Invidia (359) 1 
» 44 (687) 4 || In Princip. Proverb. (895) 
,. 45 (407) 3} In Sanct. Baptisma (522) 6 
» 48 (682) 7 || In Ebriosos (423) 
» 99 (242) Ὁ} De Fide. (185) 
» 61 (336) 7 || In Princip. erat V. (248) 2 
» 144 (276) 7 || In Barlaam (141) 1 
De Jejunio 1 (475) 2 || In Gordium (425) 7 
De Jejunio 2 (330) 1 In XL Martyres (892) | 6 
Attende Tibiipsi (480) 1 || De Humilitate (353) 
De Grat. Act. (459) 2 Quod Mundanis (633) 4 
In Julittam (580) 2 Ad Adolescentes (627) 
In Illud Lucae (406) τ In Mamantem (244) 2 
In Divites (601) | 11 | 1 || Contra Sabellianos (444) 4 


So artificial a figure needs but a few recurrences to become 
a marked element in an orator’s style. In the sermons the 
figure occurs one hundred and thirty times. Only ten sermons 
do not contain instances of its use. Although the exegetical 
homilies swell the total, more than half the examples are to 
be found elsewhere. Prosopopoiia, then, is a favorite device 
with St. Basil in elucidating a complicated question through 
the give and take of an imaginary debate, in a dramatic re- 
presentation of the passions of the martyrs, in a simple, direct 
exposition of the scriptural text, occasionally even in bringing 
forcefully before his audience exemplary habits in irrational 
beings. The multitude of examples is accounted for by the 
utility of the figure; the lengthy or dramatic examples, by the 
tradition and practice of the schools. The sophistic stamp is 
upon them. The sophistic training is very marked in thie 
panegyrics on the martyrs but, apart from any display of 
powers sanctioned by the custom of the times, a practical 
purpose underlay even these instances—the vivid, vigorous por- 
trayal of illustrious example. And this vividness and this viva- 
city attend all the employments of prosopopciia in St. Basil. 


FIGURES OF VIVACITY; OTHER DEVICES OF COMPOSITION 6] 


m) DIALEKTIKON. 


Akin to the dialogue of prosopopoiia is dialektikon—a com- 
bination of question and answer. Like prosopopoiia it lends 
liveliness to a passage by its form and analyzes the speaker’s 
thought forcefully and clearly, even minutely in some cases. 
At a new turn in a speech it is an efficacious means for com- 
pelling attention. 

Examples:—tis 6 ὡθῶν ἐκ τῶν λαγόνων τῆς γῆς τοῦτο τὸ ὕδωρ: τίς 
ὁ ἐπείγων ἐπὶ τὰ πρόσω: ποῖα ταμεῖα ὅθεν προέρχεται; τίς ὁ τόπος 
ἐφ᾽ ὃν ἐπείγεται; πῶς καὶ ταῦτα οὐκ ἐκλείπει, κἀκεῖνα οὐκ ἀποπίμπλα- 
ται; ταῦτα τῆς πρώτης ἐκείνης φωνῆς rpTyTar.—Hex. 4, 35A. Com- 
pare also Ps, 29, 125A. 

—oldas Ti ποιήσεις τῷ πλησίον καλόν; ὃ σεαυτῷ βούλει Tap’ ἑτέρου 
γενέσθαι. οἶδας ὅτι ποτέ ἐστι τὸ κακόν: ὃ οὐκ ἂν αὐτὸς παθεῖν ἕλοιο 
παρ᾽ ἑτέρου.---- Hex. 9, 83C. Compare also Ps. 7, 994; Ps. 114, 
201C-D; Deus non est auct., 80B; In Mamantem, 187 A. 

—rti οὖν ἐπὶ τούτοις; apa ἐδελεάσθη τῷ πλούτῳ; ἢ TH πρὸς τὸν ἀδι- 
κοῦντα φιλονεικίᾳ τὸ συμφέρον παρεῖδεν: ἢ τὸν ἐκ τῶν δικαστῶν ἐπηρ- 
τημένον κίνδυνον &erAdéyn;—In Julittam, 34A-B. Compare also 
Hex. 5, 47D; Ps. 1, 95E; Ps. 28, 115B; Ps. 33, 156C-D; In 
Julittam, 36C-D; Deus non est auct., 82A. 


FREQUENCY OF DIALEKTIKON IN THE SERMONS. 


Hex. 1 (530) Ps, 33 (963) 8 
» 2 (507) 8 » 44 (687) 3 
» 3 (565) 7 , 45 (407) 1 
» 4 (393) 4 , 48 (682) 2 
» ὅ (570) 4 » BY (242) 1 
» 6 (746) 4 alt (336) 4 
» 1 (425) 4 » 114 (276) 4 
» 8 (672) 3 De Jejunio 1 (475) 1 
» 9 (507) 5 De Jejunio 2 (330) 2 
Ps. 1 (449) 8 Attende Tibiipsi (480) 2 
» 1 (641) 4 De Grat. Act. (459) 4 
y 14 (872) 2 In Julittam (580) 4 
» 28 (636) 6 In ΠΙυὰ Lucae (406) 7 
. 29 (418) 3 In Divites (601) 2 
» 392 (651) 5 In Fam. et Siccit. (584) 1 


62 THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PATRISTIC STUDIES 


Deus non est auct. (598) 10 In Barlaam (141) 

Ad Iratos | (452) 4 In Gordium (425) 1 
De Invidia (359) 1 In XL Martyres (392) 3 
In Princip. Proverb. (895) 2 De Humilitate (353) 2 
In Sanct. Baptisma (522) 1 Quod Mundanis (633) 3 
In Ebriosos (423) 1 Ad Adolescentes (627) 2 
De Fide» (185) In Mamantem (244) 6 
In Princip. erat V. (248) 4 Contra Sabellianos (444) 5 


Somewhat more numerous than’ prosopopoiia, dialektikon 
serves to re-inforce the functions of the former in its force- 
ful elucidation of involved thought and in the endowment of 
long passages with a saving sprightliness. When the not too 
obtrusive character of the figure is considered in connection 
with the above table, St. Basil’s one hundred and fifty-eight 
recurrences to dialektikon may be styled a consistent and 
generous, but not an excessive use of the figure even for Western 
taste. Dialektikon is a marked element of St. Basil’s style, 
but not eccentrically so, 


n) HypopHoRa. 


Hypophora—the raising of an objection for the sake of im- 
mediate refutation—lends peculiar liveliness to the discourse. 
The orator’s willingness to bring up a view opposed to his 
own gives him an air of eager confidence that always compels 
attention. Only two examples were found in the sermons. 
While abbreviated forms of the figure, they achieve its effects. 
-Ο-πλήκτης; ἀλλ᾽ ἀνήρ. mapowos; ἀλλ᾽ ἡνωμένος κατὰ τὴν φύσιν. Tpa- 

χὺς καὶ δυσάρεστος: ἀλλὰ μέλος ἤδη σὸν καὶ μελῶν τὸ τιμιώτατον . ---- 

Hex. 7, 688. 

— ἀντερωτάσθωσαν of τὰ τοιαῦτα ἐπιζητοῦντες" πόθεν νόσοι; πόθεν αἱ πη- 
ρώσεις τοῦ σώματος; οὔτε γὰρ ἀγέννητος ἡ νόσος οὔτε μὴν δημιούρ- 
γημα τοῦ θεοῦ, etc.—Deus non est auct., 78D. 


0) PRoDIoRTHOSIS. 


In the sermons prodiorthosis takes the form of a promise 
to be brief. Only two examples were found. 
-- ἀλλὰ yap od λέληθέ με ὅτι πολλοὶ τεχνῖται τῶν βαναύσων τεχνῶν, ἀγα- 


πητῶς ἐκ τῆς ἐφ᾽ ἡμέραν ἐργασίας τὴν τροφὴν ἑαυτοῖς συμπορίζοντες, 


FIGURES OF VIVACITY; OTHER DEVICES OF COMPOSITION 63 


adage fas ἡμᾶς, ov τὸν λόγον ἡμῖν συντέμνουσιν, ἵνα μὴ ἐπὶ πολὺ 
ἢ i ῖσ ας αθσος —Hex. 8, 226. 

—ws ἂν δὲ μὴ ἐπὶ πλεῖον παρακατέχοντες ὑμᾶς ἀνιῶμεν, βραχέα ihe ov 
κατελάβομεν ἀδομένου ὑμῖν ψαλμοῦ διαλεχθέντες καὶ τῷ λόγῳ τῆς 
παρακλήσεως κατὰ τὴν προσοῦσαν ἡμῖν δύναμιν τὰς ψυχὰς ὑμῶν θρέ- 
ψαντες, ἐπὶ τὴν τοῦ σώματος ἐπιμέλειαν ἕκαστον διαφήσομεν.--- Ps, 114, 
199 Ὁ. 

This concludes those minor figures whose generous use im- 
parts a vivacity to the style or recalls the manner of the 
Attic court-room still living on in the traditions of rhetoric. 
In his use of these figures St. Basil is certainly generous. 
Asyndeton and the rhetorical question enliven his discourse 
at every turn, give the appearance of a forceful, rapid delivery, 
and drive home the thought vigorously. Polysyndeton, dia- 
lektikon, prosopopoiia, each in their way, emphasize and, in 
the case of the last two, even dramatize the development of 
thought. All these figures enjoy a use considerable in number 
but restrained in character—the restraint being only emphasized 
by a few striking exceptions. Those echoes of the court-room- 
diaporesis, prokataleipsis, hypophora, prodiorthosis—have an 
interest historical rather than rhetorical, showing how the old 
devices lived on in a time that had little real use for them 
but clung to them for their Attic associations. Parenthesis 
and epidiorthosis bear witness to that lack of thorough pre- 
paration long suspected of many of St. Basil’s sermons.2 The 
very little sarcasm and irony is a pleasant discovery, bespeak- 
ing an orator who was vehement without being vicious. 

Considering the opportunities for display that the grand 
themes of St. Basil’s discourses afforded, restraint is the general 
conclusion on his use of the minor figures of composition—a 
restraint not in number but in quality, and large totals are 
here accounted for on practical grounds. Although detailed 
reports are not available for comparing St. Basil with con- 
temporaries, we nevertheless know that a pupil of the sophists 
could and generally would turn any occasion and any lively 
figure into an orgy of rhetorical abuse. Such a description 
does not fit St. Basil. 





2 Jackson, 51. 


64 THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PATRISTIC STUDIES 


But while restraint is the general characteristic of St. Basil 
in his use of these figures, a man trained in the schools where 
ecphrasis was popular could not always utterly forego an extra- 
vagant prosopopoiia or an. occasional disproportioned outburst 
of asyndeta or rhetorical questions. The practical aims of 
the Christian preacher and the tendencies of the pupil of the 
sophists here mingle, with the polemical purpose easily in the 
ascendant. 


CHAPTER VIII 


MINOR FIGURES ESPECIALLY 
CHARACTERISTIC OF THE SECOND SOPHISTIC 


In their own natures there is nothing that warrants the 
grouping together of hyperbaton, hendiadys, paradox, hyper- 
bole, antimetathesis, antonomasia. But each of them in its 
way possessed characteristics which appealed to the extravagant 
artificiality of the Second Sophistic and enjoyed so marked a 
development among the rhetors that this fact alone calls for 
their consideration apart from the groups to which they 
naturally belong. 


a) HyPERBATON. 


Hyberbaton—the transposition of words from their natural 
position for artistic purposes—was Zealously cultivated by the 
disciples of the Second Sophistic. Originally a means of em- 
phasis, hyperbaton gradually became transformed into a vehicle 
for the display of an affected elegance which the sophists saw 
in the forced removal of words from their logical order. The 
following variations of it are found in St. Basil. 

1) The article is separated from its noun by a long inter- 
val:—oi πέμπτην σώματος φύσιν εἰς τὴν οὐρανοῦ καὶ τῶν κατ᾽ αὐτὸν 
ἀστέρων γένεσιν ὑποτιθέμενοι.---- 6χ. I, 11C. 

2) The noun is separated from its possessor or explanatory 
modifier:—s τῶν εἰκοσιτεσσάρων ὡρῶν μιᾶς ἡμέρας ἐκπληρουσῶν 
διάστημα.---- Hex. 2, 20 E. 

3) A verb or several words is placed between a noun and its 
adjective:—ré τὴν μέσην τοῦ παντὸς εἰληφέναι χώραν.--- Hex. 1,10 A. 

4) Of two co-ordinate adjectives, the second is placed as if 
it were an after-thougth:—évapyov τὸν κόσμον καὶ ἀτελεύτη- 
tov.— Hex. 1, 4B. 


66 THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PATRISTIC STUDIES 


5) An important word is placed at or near the beginning 
or end of a clause or sentence for emphasis:—wore παντός 
ἐστιν ἀληθέστερον τὸ ἑκάστῳ τῶν φυομένων ἢ σπέρμα εἶναι--- Hex. 5, 
41 B. 

From the uncertain quality of many of the examples collected, 
accurate statistics on St. Basil’s use of hyperbaton are impos- 
sible. From a lack of statistics on other orators of the period 
I could not determine the extent of sophistic influence in 
St. Basil, even if statistics on St. Basil himself were satisfac- 
tory. That he did use hyperbaton, that he used it constantly, 
every page of the text shows. But in a figure so peculiar to 
the time, we cannot pronounce upon its degree of frequency 
save from the standard use of the time itself. Such a standard 
is not available either from the period as a whole or from 
individual representatives. 


b) Henprapys. 


Hendiadys—the placing on an equal grammatical plane of 
two expressions, one of which is logically subordinate to the 
other—has a tendency to emphasize the less important. Some- 
times its purpose is pleonastic. In any event it is not a marked 
element of St. Basil’s style in the sermons. 

Examples:—zpds τὴν ὄψιν καὶ τὸ τερπνὸν---(τὸ τερπνόν logically 
modifies dyuw).—Hex. 2, 19 Εἰ. 

- πληγαῖς καὶ pdorié.—Hex. 9, 86 B. 

- λογισμὸν καὶ τὸν votv.—In Ebriosos, 129 B. 

The remaining examples in the sermons occur in Hex. Ἶ 80; 
Hex. 2, 19 E; Hex. 5, 45 ἘΠ Hex. 8, 78B; Hex. 9, 80 B; 
86 Ὁ: Ps. 7, 105D; De Grat. Act. 27 Εἰ; In Tilitiae: 42 EB; 
In Fam. et Siccit., 63C; 64C; In Ebriosos, 129 B; 137C. 


c) ApsectivE SUBSTANTIVE ABSTRACT. 


Adjective Substantive Abstract—a name not found in the 
rhetoricians—is here employed to designate that figure of 
emphasis wherein a phrase properly adjectival is raised to 
substantive rank as an abstract noun. 

Examples:—dA7@cias ῥημάτων.---Ἠθχ. 1, 2 D; 
--τὸ ἐκ τῆς μελῳδίας teprvdv.—Ps. 1, 900; 


MINOR FIGURES ESPECIALLY CHARACTERISTIC ETC. 67 


—pa ἐν τῇ παλαιότητι τοῦ γράμματος ἀλλ᾽ ἐν τῇ καινότητι τοῦ πνεύ- 
paros.—Ps, 32, 188 C. 

-- τὴν χαυνότητα τῆς Siavoias.—Attende Tibiipsi, 21 A. 

—® τῆς ἀτοπίας τῶν Aéyov!—In Sanct. Baptisma, 116 C. 
Compare also Hex. 7, 65 C; Hex. 9, 86C; Ps. 7, 105 A; 

Ps. 61,199 A; In Julittam, 35C. 


FREQquENCY OF ADJECTIVE SUBSTANTIVE ABSTRACT 
IN THE SERMONS. 


Hex. 1 (530) 4 In Julittam (580) 6 

δ 3 (565) ἃ In ΠΙυὰ Lucae (406) 6 

7 (425) 2 In Divites (601) 11 

ΗΝ 9 (507) 1 In Fam. et Siccit. (584) 5 

Fe, 1 (449) 3 Deus non est auct. (598) 5 

Σ 7 (425) 1 De Invidia (359) 1 

32 (651) 1 In Sanct. Baptisma (522) 1 

κι 89 (963) 1 In Ebriosos (423) 2 

᾿ 44 (687) 1 In Princip. erat V. (248) 1 

Ὁ 45 (407) 7 In Barlaam (141) 1 

" 48 (682) 2 In Gordium (425) 3 

3 61 (336) 3 De Humilitate (353) 1 

De Jejunio 1 (475) 3 Quod Mundanis (633) 4 
δ ‘3 2 (330) 3 Ad Adolescentes (627) 9 
Attende Tibiipsi (480) 4 In Mamantem (244) 1 
De Grat. Act. (459) 2 Contra Sabellianos (444) 1 


Neither the above table nor the total (98) makes Adjective 
Substantive Abstract a prominent feature of St. Basil’s style. 
Fourteen sermons contain not an instance of its use. The 
remaining thirty-two show no constant recurrence to it. In 
Divites shows the most frequent use of the figure and here the 
average of its recurrence is only once about every fifty-four 
lines of text. Such infrequency in so mild a figure constitutes 
Adjective Substantive Abstract almost negligible. 


d) Parapox (Oxymoron). 


Rarely used in classical times, paradgx—a combination of 
words self-contradictory apart from the context—was a favo- 
rite device among the sophists of the Empire. They welcomed 

5* 


68 THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PATRISTIC STUDIES 


it as a vehicle especially rich in opportunities for linguistic 
jugglery. The fact that its full meaning depends on a know- 
ledge of the context suggests the most popular form of this 
figure—the combination of a term in its literal sense with a 
term in a figurative sense, the figurative meaning being intel- 
ligible only in the light of the context. Christians educated 
in pagan schools found in paradoxes of the Faith abundant 
material for satisfying this convention of contemporary rhe- 
toric. 

Another name for paradox is oxymoron. It is sometimes 
suggested that a distinction is to be made between the two 
terms. Although the rhetoricians are not precise in the matter, 
the examples given by them point to oxymoron as a neater, 
more pithy form of paradox. 

Examples:—iva τὸν ἕνα μὴ παραδέξωνται, μυρίους εἰσάγουσι. (i. 6. the 
Hebrews, in order that they may not accept Christ as the 
Second Person of the Trinity [τὸν ἕνα] say that God’s phrase, 
“Let us make man”, is addressed to the attendant angels).— 
Hex. 9, 87 E. 

--ἄνευ γῆς dutebes: ἄνευ σπορᾶς Oepivers,—Ps. 14, 118 Ὁ. Compare 
also In Sanct. Baptisma, 116 A. 

—iva ἡμεῖς τῇ ἐκείνου πτωχείᾳ (of Christ) πλουτήσωμεν (spiritual 
wealth). Ps, 33, 147 EK. For the same words in the same sense 
compare In Divites, 61 E. 

—kai ὑπὸ φιληδονίας τὴν ἡδονὴν ἀφανίζων (1. 6. destroying the pleasure 
of eating in the insipidity which results from gluttony).— 
De Jejunio 1, 7A. 

--μετὰ τῶν ἀχαρίστων ὁ εὐεργέτης" πρὸς τοὺς καθημένους ἐν σκότει 
ὁ ἥλιος τῆς δικαιοσύνης" ἐπὶ τὸν σταυρὸν ὁ ἀπαθής: ἐπὶ τὸν θάνατον ἡ 
Cons ἐπὶ τὸν ἅδην τὸ φῶς: ἡ ἀνάστασις διὰ τοὺς merdvras.—In 
Julittam, 40C-D. Compare also Ps. 33, 144A; In Divites, 
53 A. 

--σιωπῶσα Bod.—In Princip. Proverb. 99 E. Compare also 
Hex. 3, 986. 

---ὠἀποθάνωμεν ow, ἵνα Giowpev.—In Sanct. Baptisma, 113 D. The 
same words in the same sense occur in In XL Martyres, 
153.D; the same thought in different words occurs in In 
Gordium, 148 D. 

---καινὸν τοῦτο τῆς ἀμετρίας τὸ pérpov.— In Ebriosos, 128 Ὁ. 


MINOR FIGURES ESPECIALLY CHARACTERISTIC ETC. 69 


The remaining examples in the sermons occur in Hex. 1, 2 A; 
606; 86; Hex. 2, 1406; Ps. 33, 144 A; Ps. 61, 196 C; In Julittam, 
33 Β; Deus non est auct., 76B; In Sanct. Baptisma, 113 Ὁ; 
117E; In Ebriosos, 127D; In Barlaam, 139C; In Gordium, 
147A; 148D; In XL Martyres, 151 C; 151 C; Quod Mundanis, 
172 B-C. 

A total of thirty-two examples in forty-six sermons, with 
only four sermons containing as many as three examples and 
twenty-eight sermons containing no examples, illustrates force- 
fully the restraint of St. Basil in a figure dear to the sophists 
and their Christian contemporaries alike.1 But there can be 
no doubt on the other hand of the high artificiality of the 
examples found. The scarcity of examples in a field so favorable 
to paradox as the Christian religion and the unmistakable quality 
of the examples found indicate a trait in St. Basil’s rhetorical 
manner frequently noted in these pages—the education strongly 
sophistic breaking through, on occasion, a stronger restraint. 


6) HYPERBOLE. 


Originally hyperpole was a kind of metaphor. The element 
of exaggeration was a necessary constituent, but basically hyper- 
bole was a spezialized form of implied comparison—the com- 
parison of an object to the same characteristic in another 
object magnified many times, In the typical hyperbole of the 
later rhetoric the element of exaggeration obscures the basic 
metaphor. In its striving for startling effects, the hyperbole 
takes on a sensational quality closely akin to the contemporary 
paradox. The bounds of good taste are thus easily over-step- 
ped; the insignificant and commonplace are thus systematically 
and flaringly inflated in order that the show-artist may have 
more opportunities for displaying his versatility than the subject- 
matter itself allows. This does not necessarily imply a conti- 
nual recurrence to the figure throughout the uneven pitch of an 
oration, although orators so excessive are extant. It refers more 
to the astounding hyperbolical manner of the sophists on the 
unimportant phases of themes in themselves exalted enough to 
permit a measured flight of fancy on occasion. Hermogenes 





1 Méridier, 13; Guignet, 95. 


΄ 


70 THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PATRISTIO STUDIES 


approves of such exaltation of the insignificant.2 Aristides, 

Himerius, and Libanius all frequently abuse this figure.s The 

panegyrical oration became a favorite occasion, and among the 

Christian orators‘ the extravagant hyperbole appears to have 

been an established convention of panegyrical sermons. In the 

panegyrics on the martyrs especially the language of ordinary 
good taste was insufficient for the enthusiasm of the orator. 

Examples:—aad’ ἐπειδὴ τοῖς μεγίστοις ὄρεσι τῷ ὄγκῳ τοῦ σώματος 
παρισάζεται (likening whales to mountains)—Hex. 7, 68 E. 

--- βουνοί τινες σάρκινοι (likening elephants to hills of flesh),— 
Hex. 9, 86 A. | 

—aonjpepov ἑαυτοὺς τῇ μέθῃ καταβαπτίσωμεν (Since a five days fast 
has been proclaimed, let us drown ourselves in drink).—De 
Jejunio 2, 12D. 

—eis νεκρὰς ἀκοὰς (“dead” ears used here for “drunken” ears)— 
In Ebriosos, 124 A. 

—ovxi δὲ φρίξει ὃ οὐρανὸς ἄνωθεν: οὐ συσκοτάσει δὲ ἐπ᾽ ἐμοὶ τὰ ἄστρα: 
ἡ γῆ δέ με ὑποστήσεται ὅλως (will not the heavens above shudder 
etc. i.e. if I betray my god.).—In Gordium, 148 A. Com- 
pare also In Ebriosos, 123 C. | 
The remaining examples in the sermons occur in Hex. 1, 2D; 

Hex. 2, 12 A; Hex. 8, 79B; In Illud Lucae, 45 A; In Divites 

55C; In Gordium, 143 Εἰ; 147A; In XL Martyres, 149C. 


There are only sixteen hyperboles in the sermons, and of 
these three only approach startling disproportion. While the 
element of exaggeration is always pronounced, it is due rather 
to a vigorous orator seeking vigorous expression than a show- 
artist seeking an opportunity. In no instance are the insigni- 
ficant aspects of a subject dragged forth for a wanton display 
of virtuosity. Every hyperbole is inspired by something large 
and important in St. Basil’s eyes. The size of elephants, the 
excess of drunkards, the indifference of drunkards to the word 
of God, the utter repugnance of the very thought of denying 
God (In Gordium, 148 A), the excesses of gluttony (In Illud 
Lucae, 45 A), the insatiableness of an extravagant wife (In 





2 Περὶ Ἰδεῶν 396, 5. 
3 Aristides I, XIT 203, 210; Himerius IT, 408; XXIII, 772; Libanius 1,542. 
4 Méridier 29—30; Delahaye, 207. 


MINOR FIGURES ESPECIALLY CHARACTERISTIC ETO. 71 


Divites, 55), the prowess of the Forty Martyrs (In XL Mar- 
tyres, 149C)—are subjects calling forth Basil’s admiration or 
indignation, and in his desire to be emphatic he becomes 
picturesque. The panegyric on Gordius bears unmistakable 
traces of the abandoned extravagance of the schools, wherein 
the very thought of renouncing God is so repulsive to the Martyr 
that St. Basil makes him cry out (In Gordium, 148A). “Will 
not the heavens above shudder; will not the stars grow dim 
on my account, will the earth, finally, support me” (i.e. if I 
betray my god). An approach to the foregoing in the sophistic 
manner occurs in In Ebriosos, 123C where, in utter disgust 
at the conduct of women attending the festival that called 
forth his address, he cries out, “They defiled the air with their 
adulterous songs; they defiled the earth with their adulterous 
feet”. But even in these instances much is to be accounted 
for by the importance of the subject-matter in St. Basil’s eyes. 
In In Gordium 148 E the orator’s enthusiasm at the conclusion 
of his dramatic ecphrasis on the death of Gordius sweeps him 
into the following extravagance on the uproar of the people 
witnessing the martyrdom, “What clap of thunder ever sent 
forth so great a sound from the clouds as then from those 
below went up to heaven!” This outburst, while not so imagi- 
native as some others, is nevertheless the best instance of the 
genuinely sophistic manner in that the subject itself is insigni- 
ficant. The shout of the people, of itself not important, is a 
detail contributing powerfully to the dramatic recital preceding. 
Tt belongs to an ecphrasis, wherein sophistic peculiarities, from 
the nature of ecphrasis, have fullest play. In ecphrasis, then, 
alone and in only one ecphrasis of the several to be found in 
his sermons5 is St.-Basil’s mildness in hyperboles completely 
swept aside. Even here vehemence and not mere display is 
the main-spring of the figure, vehemence in driving home with 
a dramatic punch the edifying martyrdom of Gordius. 
Sixteen instances, with only one of these strongly sophistic, 
with only two mildly so, when considered in connection with 
the fact that four panegyrics are included among the sermons 
and countless other opportunities for the indulgence of the 





5 Cf, ch. 13. 


72 THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PATRISTIC STUDIES 


figure, argue a marked restraint in number, especially when 
compared to St. Gregory Nazianzus,® and in quality, when 
compared with St. Chrysostom’? and St. Gregory of Nyssa8. 


f) ANTONOMASIA. 


Antonomasia—the designation of a person or thing by one 
of his or its qualities or archievments—is considered by some 
rhetors® a subdivision of synechdoche. Since one’s qualities 
or achievments generally call for more words than are con- 
tained in one’s name, antonomasia could be discussed as one 
of those periphrastic forms in this study treated under the 
head of Figures of Redundancy. But since this device became 
an almost universally observed convention in the extravagant 
rhetoric of the Empire, its consideration in this chapter apart 
from either of the above groups is justified. A striking proof of the 
prevalence of antonomasia in the literary work of the time is 
the fact that Eusebius, in his Life of Constantine, avoids the 
name of Arius, Bishop Alexander, and four Roman emperors in 
a manner not to be explained except on the ground of scrupulous 
adherence to this eccentric habit of the later rhetoric. 1° 
Examples: 

Cumulative:—éday ταῦτα pdbwyev—tiv κτίσαντα προσκυνήσομεν, τῷ 
Δεσπότῃ δουλεύσομεν, τὸν Πατέρα δοξάσομεν, τὸν τροφέα ἡμῶν ἀγα- 
πήσομεν, τὸν εὐεργέτην αἰδεσθησόμεθα, τὸν ἀρχηγὸν τῆς ζωῆς ἡμῶν τῆς 
παρούσης καὶ τῆς μελλούσης προσκυνοῦντες οὐκ ἀπολήξομεν, τὸν δι᾿ ov 
παρέσχετο 16 πλούτου καὶ τὰ ἐν ἐπαγγελίαις πιστούμενον καὶ τῇ 
πείρᾳ τῶν παρόντων βεβαιοῦντα ἡμῖν τὰ προσδοκώμενα.---- Hex. 6, 50 D. 

Prerogatives of 606 :-- τοῦ κτίσαντος.--- Hex. 6, 51 E. 

—6 "Yiworos—Hex. 6, 61 Ὁ. 

- τὸν δὲ τοῦ χρόνου ποιητὴν ---π Princip. erat. V., 136 A. 

---τὸν ἀληθινὸν βασιλέα---- XL Martyres, 153 D. 

--ὁ κριτὴς τῆς ἀνθρωπίνης Sofs—Quod Mundanis., 173 B. 

Antonomasia followed by antonomasia:— τοῦ ὑπὲρ ἡμῶν καταπαλαί- 
σαντος τὸν τὸ κράτος ἔχοντα τοῦ θανάτου.--- 8. 29, 126 D. 





6 Guignet, 344. 

7 Ameringer, 39—40. 

8 Méridier, 158—161. 

9 Trypho, Spengel III, 204; Charis, ibid. 273. 
10 Delahaye 208—209. 


MINOR FIGURES ESPECIALLY CHARACTERISTIC ETC, 73 


Names of Satan:—6é dvoper}s—Quod Mundanis, 171 E. 

- ὃ mohguos—Quod Mundanis, 172 A. 

A martyr:—rév ἀθλητήν.---Οαοα Mundanis, 172A. 

Name of city:—dré τῆς πόλεως ταύτης, ὅθεν καὶ μᾶλλον αὐτὸν ἀγα- 
πῶμεν, διότι οἰκεῖος ἡμῖν 6 κόσμος eotiv—In Gordium, 143 B. 

Name of ruler:—6é τότε ripavvos—In Gordium, 148 D. 

The Church:—* κοινὴ pjrnp—Quod Mundanis, 170 B. 


Frequency oF ANTONOMASIA IN THE SERMONS. 


Hex. 1 (530) 26 De Jejunio 2 (990... 18 
» 2 (δ0ὴ 16 Attende Tibiipsi (480) 17 
» 38 (565) 28 #£De Grat. Act. (459) 8 
» 4 (393) 9 [αὶ Julittam (580) 35 
» δ (570) 6 In Iilud Lucae (406) 10 
» 6 (746) 42 In Divites (601) 18 
» . ¢ (425) 56 In Fam. et Siccit. (584) 12 
» 8 (572). 14 Deus non est auct. (598) 13 
3 91-9) /(60T) 23°, . Ad Tratos (452) 12 

Ps. 1 (449) 8 De Invidia (359) 11 


ar Qo BA yy 10": Τὰ Peimeip, Proverbs. (896):\) 8 
, 14 (372) 5 In Sanct. Baptisma (522) 15 


» 28 (686) 13 In Ebriosos (423) 5 
» 29 (418) 12 De Fide (185) 18 
» 982 (651) 16 In Princip. erat Y. (248) 14 
» 383 (963) 14 In Barlaam (141) 8 
» 44 (687) 14 In Gordium (425) 24 
» 45 (407) 14 In XL Martyres (392) 10 
» 48 (682) 27 De Humilitate (353) 6 
» 59 (242) 4 Quod Mundanis (633) 44 
» 61 (336) 11 Ad Adolescentes (627) 2 
» 114 (276) 9 ‘In Mamantem (244) 10 


De Jejunio 1 (475) 10 Contra Sabellianos (444) 2 


Varying with the individual sermon, St. Basil resorts to an- 
tonomasia throughout his homilies. 641 examples in 569 half- 
_ pages of Benedictine text seem excessive to Western taste, but 
judged from the standards of the Fourth Century, this total is 
not remarkable. A glance at the table, however, shows St. Basil 
at times generous and at times very sparing of antonomasia. 


74 THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PATRISTIC STUDIES 


Hex. 3, Hex. 6, In Jullittam, De Fide, In Princip. erat V., 
In Barlaam, Quod Mundanis contain a wealth of examples 
that measure up to sophistic notions of a proper frequency. 
The moderate use of antonomasia in most of the sermons, the 
very frequent recurrence to it in a few sermons suggest that here 
again that restraint which generally characterizes St. Basil’s 
use of the Minor Figures of Rhetoric is subject to an occa- 
sional relapse into the manner of his contemporaries. 


g) ANTIMETATHESIS. 


Antimetathesis—the repetition within a sentence of the same 
word with a different meaning—is a species of verbal jugglery 
dear to the heart of the Asiatic sophist. 

The first sentence of the Hexaemeron furnishes a mild 
example:—zpérovea ἀρχὴ (beginning of speech)—dpy7 (beginning 
of creation). 

Noteworthy examples are:—x«xpe@v οὐκ ἐσθίεις (meat you do not 
eat) ἀλλ᾽ ἐσθίεις τὸν ἀδελφόν (but you eat your brother, i. 6. you 
persecute him.).—De Jejunio I, 9B. 

—édv ἐκ τῆς γαστρὸς (womb) προήγαγε, πάλιν τῇ γαστρὶ (stomach) 
κακῶς ὑποδέξασθαι.----Τὰ Fam. et Siccit., 70 A. 

—édv yap μηδέποτε ἐπινυστάξῃς τοῖς οἴαξιν ἕως εἶ ἐν τῷ βίῳ τούτῳ--- καὶ 
τὴν παρὰ τοῦ ἹἸΠ]νεύματος συνέργειαν λήψῃ ---καὶ πραείαις αὔραις 
καὶ εἰρηνικαῖς ἀσφαλῶς σε διακομίζοντος.---- ἢ Princip. Proverb., 
113 A-B. 

Compare also Ps. 29, 130 EH. The remaining examples in the 
sermons occur in Hex. 2, 210; Attende Tibiipsi, 24D; In 
Divites 54B; 616. 

10 cases of antimetathesis in 46 sermons constitute an example 
of restraint surprising in an Asiatic educated in the sophistic 
schools. That Basil’s temper was thoroughly Asiatic in the pro- 
vince of word-play is convincingly established by the examples 
given above, particularly by the rather startling pun last quo- 
ted wherein the word τοῦ Πνεύματος is made to do service not 
only for its proper meaning, Holy Spirit, but is forced by the 
context to likewise signify τοῦ πνεύματος, wind.! 





1 The elaborateness of the word-play here points to Sophistic rather 
than Biblical inspiration. 


MINOR FIGURES ESPECIALLY CHARACTERISTIC ETC. 75 


In these minor figures of rhetoric so peculiarly a part of the 
sophistic tradition we have an excellent index of the extent 
of the influence of that tradition on St. Basil, at least in so 
far as the Minor Figures are concerned. In this chapter more 
than in any chapter so far developed, we look for the sophistic 
manner to show its strongest manifestations in our orator both 
in quality and number. The sophistic quality is very palpable 
but its extensiveness is remarkably moderate. Evidences so 
thoroughly Asiatic yet so few in number suggest the possi- 
bility that St. Basil resolutely determined not to follow the 
pagan manner; that in this determination he was not uni- 
formly successful; that these richly sophistic examples mentioned 
above are indices of that Basil of the school days in contact 
with other Asiatics at Cdesarea, Nicomedia, Athens; a Basil 
whose innate Asianism the resolute Archbishop of Caesarea, 
for all his protests, could not quite suppress. 


CHAPTER Ix 


FIGURES AND DEVICES 
OF THE SECOND SOPHISTIC 


The figures and devices reserved for classification here in a 
special manner are characteristic of the Second Sophistic. The 
following may be taken as a working division: 

1. Gorgianic Figures and Allied Devices (contributing to:the 

symmetry of the period). 

2. The Metaphor and its Subdivisions. 

3. The Comparison. 

4, Ecphrasis. 

Of the above groups ecphrasis alone is a child of the Second 
Sophistic. The rest are adaptations from the past but so 
thoroughly imbued with the sophistic manner that they deserve 
a place along side of ecphrasis in a study of the rhetoric of 
the times. Besides the many examples of Gorgianic figures 
which the sermons of St. Basil yield, there are other devices 
not precisely corresponding to the scholastic definitions of the 
Gorgianic figures, yet bearing so close a resemblance to them 
and occurring in such numbers that it was thought that to 
ignore them would be to leave out of account an important 
element of St. Basil’s sentence parellelism. Therefore, after the 
figures found in the canon given below, will be found names 
strange to the rhetors but used here to designate devices which 
show a kinship to the traditional figures. 

1. Gorgianic Figures and Allied Devices here include all those 
figures upon which depends the most notable characte- 
ristic of Greek prose i. e. parallelism. 

a) Isocolon—a successsion of cola of about equal 
length.—1 τῷ χρόνῳ μαρανθεὶς ἢ νόσῳ διαλυθείς.---- ΠΗ Θχ, 5, 
41 Ε΄. 


FIGURES AND DEVICES OF THE SECOND SOPHISTIC 77 


b) Perfect Parison—successive cola whose structural 


C) 


d) 


θ) 


f) 


8) 


similarity extends to an exact correspondence in the 

position of words.—ofov χαλκευτικὴ μὲν περὶ τὸν σίδηρον, 

τεκτονικὴ δὲ περὶ τὰ ξύλα.---Ηρχ. 2, 18 D. 

Parison—successive cola having the same general 

structure.—ds τὸν ὄγκον τῆς τυραννίδος μισήσας, καὶ πρὸς 

τὸ ταπεινὸν τῶν ὁμοφύλων ἀναδραμών.--- ἶθοχ. 1, 2B. 

Chiastic Parison—similarity in the general structure 

of the succeeding cola varied by a chiastic arrange- 

ment of the final words.—xai ὀνόματι μὲν ὁμολογοῦντες 

Υἱόν, ἔργῳ δὲ καὶ ἀληθείᾳ τὴν ὕπαρξιν aberotvres.—Contra 

Sabellianos, 190 A. 

Homoioteleuton (Paromoion)—a parison whose cola 

end in similar sounds.—ras ἐρημίας οἰκίζει, τὰς ἀγορὰς 

cudpoviter.—Ps. 1, 91. 

(a) Antithesis—parison plus an opposition of thought 
between the cola.—viv μὲν ὑψουμένη δι’ ἀλαζονείαν, νῦν 
δὲ ταπεινουμένη διὰ λύπας καὶ συστολάς.---- 5. 7, 104E. 

(0) Chiastic Antithesis—successive cola antithetical 
in thought and containing a chiasmus somewhere 
in the corresponding succession of words.—rd 
μὲν λεπτὸν καὶ διηθούμενον ἐπὶ τὰ ἄνω διιέντα, τὸ δὲ 
παχύτατον καὶ γεῶδες ἐναφιέντα τοῖς κάτω.--- Hex, 8,28 D, 

(a) Chiasmus—two or more successive cola wherein 
the succession of words in the first colon is re- 
versed in the second and the succession of words 
in the second is reversed in the third, etc.—é 
νέος τὴν ἡλικίαν, Kal τὰς φρένας vewdTepos.—De Humili- 
tate, 1587 6. 

(0) Antithetical Chiasmus—a chiasmus whose corre- 
sponding parts are opposed in thought. --- μήποτε 
δικοιωθεὶς τῇ σεαυτοῦ ψήφῳ, TH Tod θεοῦ κατακριθῆς.---- 


De Humilitate, 160 Ο. 


h) Sentence Parison—two or more successive sentences 


i) 


whose corresponding clauses are of similar structure. 
--- ἄλλως γὰρ διατίθεται μειουμένης αὐτῆς, καὶ ἄλλως avfo- 
μένης τὰ σώματα.--- Ηοχ. 6, 60 EK. 

Parallelism—two or more successive sentences in 
which one or more but not all the corresponding 


78 THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PATRISTIC STUDIES 


clauses are of similar structure. —xav0jrw 6 ποῦς iva 
διηνεκῶς μετ᾽ ἀγγέλων χορεύῃ, ἀποῤῥυήτω ἡ χεὶρ ἵνα ἔχῃ 
παῤῥησίαν πρὸς τὸν Δεσπότην ἐπαίρεσθαι.---Τ΄ὰ XL Mar- 
tyres, 188 C. 


2. Metaphor and its Subdivisions here include the metaphor 
under its various aspects and characteristics. The di- 
vision given below is necessary in any study that beyond 
the mere compilation of totals looks for sophistic influence 
in the several forms that metaphor may assume. 


a) Prolonged Metaphor—the elaborate, prolonged deve- 


b) 


lopment, clause on clause, sentence on sentence, of. 
an implied comparison between two objects.—“A 
river is our life, ever-flowing and filled with waves 
one upon another. One has already flowed by, another 
is still passing, another has just emerged from its 
sources, another is about to do so, and all of us 
hasten to the common sea of death”—Quod Mundanis, 
172 E. 


Metaphor—one object is likened to another object 
by asserting it to be that other object, the com- 
paritive words being omitted. It is the shorter, 
more usual form of metaphor.—“Men who thus write 
spin a spider’s web.”—Hex. 1, 3 B. 


c) Redundant Metaphor—the presentation of the same 


aspect of an object under many metaphors based on 
varied provinces of thought and .experience.—“A 
piteous sight it was for the just to see that soldier 
become a runaway, that most valiant man a captive, 
that lamb of Christ snatched off by the wolf.”—In 
XL Martyres, 154 C. 


3. The Comparison, like the metaphor, is divided for pur- 
poses of demonstrating the extent of sophistic influence 
into the subdivisions which follow. 


a) 


Short Comparison—a property, or properties, of one 
object is formally attributed to another object. It 
is a metaphor completed by a grammatical form.— 
“For just as a shadow clings to the body, so does 
sin cling to our souls.”—In Divites, 58C. 


FIGURES AND DEVICES OF THE SECOND SOPHISTIC 19 


b) Long Comparison—an elaborate, detailed instance 
of the foregoing.—“For just as the goal of the road 
is different G.e. for travellers) but their dwelling 
together arises as an accident of their journeys, so 
for those united in marriage or in any other com- 
munion of this life, the end of their lives is clearly 
pre-ordained for them, and this pre-ordained end 
of their lives necessarily separates and makes to 
part those thus joined.”—In Julittam, 38 D-E. 

c) Redundant Comparison—the heaping up of com- 
parisons about one central theme.—“What the foun- - 
dation is to the house and the keel to the ship and 
the heart to the body of an animal, this short pre- 
face is to the general purport of the psalms.”— 
Ps, 1, 91. 

4, Ecphrasis—a word-picture. For example compare page 146. 


CHAPTER X 


GORGIANIC FIGURES 
AND ALLIED DEVICES OF PARALLELISM 


Parison, paromoion, and antithesis! are called Gorgianic 
figures because of some connection, not precisely defined by 
the ancients, with the Sicilian sophist, Gorgias of Leontini. Of 
these antithesis at least existed in Greek prose before Gorgias, 
time-and under influences non-Sicilian—in the works of the 
Ionian philosopher Heraclitus2, But Gorgias introduced these 
figures to Fifth-century Athens and Fifth-century Athens be- 
came the centre of intellectual Greece. For Greek literature, 
therefore, Gorgias may be considered their inventor, for he 
first used them extensively in prose purposely artistic. His 
excessive use of these figures became a precept to his fellows 
and followers as to what to avoid, but the Gorgianic figures, 
with him and after him, became the basic instruction of all 
technical training which had for its object the production of 
artistic prose. 

When rhetoric became confined to the school-room after 
Alexander’s exploits, the Gorgianic figures, of course, passed 
from the field of political action. In the first century of the 
Empire these figures lost their ancient prestige, but in the 
Attic triumph of the second century they returned to their old 
preeminence.? In the ancient treatises of rhetoric the Gorgianic 
figures always receive the most attention. Their professed pur- 
pose to reduce the idea and its expression to a regular design 
appealed to the beauty-loving Greek; made them the foremost 





1 Paronomasia, usually considered a Gorgianic figure, has been treated 
under the Figures of Sound. cf. page 39. 

2 Robertson, 8. 

3 Hermogenes, II 437; Diodorus XII, 53; Philostratus, Epist. 364. 


GORGIANIC FIGURES ETC. 81 


devices for artistic expression in all periods of rhetoric at 
Athens, and therefore especially cherished of the Second Sophi- 
stic. All three achieve their effects by producing symmetry and 
parallelism: parison, by a parallelism in structure; paromoion, 
by a parallelism of structure and sound; antithesis, by a parallel- 
ism of structure and sense. Temperament and predilection 
easily account for the varying popularity of other figures with 
disciples of the sophistic schools. A marked indifference to the 
Gorgianic figures in such disciples would be inexplicable on 
grounds at all creditable. 


a) Isoconon. 


Isocolon—a succession of cola of equal length, the syllable and 
not the letter being taken as the basis of measurement—from 
the nature of the case logically precedes the Gorgianic figures. 
Parison and its refinements and variations are but isocola where- 
in the parallelism is extended from mere length to structure 
and sound and sense. In studies of the Attic Orators, iso- 
colon as a distinct figure is often avoided as “an unnecessary 
refinement of terminology”. Only two Greek rhetoricians define 
it4 and they apparently disagree, but an example cited by 
Demetrius and the name of the figure itself indicate that it 
has to do with equality of cola. Such a parallelism in Attic 
prose-writers may be largely the result of chance. It is rare 
at all events.5 Although this stricture obviously applies to 
examples of isocolon in the Second Sophistic orators, the results 
attained by Guignet,® particularly in connection with paren- 
thesis, and the obvious abuse of the figure by some of the 
sophists, as Dion of Prusa, lead us to look sharply for similar 
manifestations in St. Basil. 

166 examples of successive, equi-syllabled cola were found—an 
insignificant total if every instance found were free from the 
limitations noted above, and we must not forget the element 
of chance. No examples interrupted by parenthesis were found. 
Unusual types that may have some rhetorical design are: 
--ὡς yap ἡ ἀρχὴ τῆς ὁδοῦ οὕπω ὁδός, 





4 Anon. III, 155; Demetrius, III, 267. 
5 Robertson, 16. 
6 108 ff. 


82 THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PATRISTIC STUDIES 


Kal ἡ ἀρχὴ τῆς οἰκίας οὐκ οἰκία, 
οὕτω καὶ ἡ τοῦ χρόνου ἀρχὴ οὕπω χρόνος, 
ἀλλ᾽ οὐδὲ μέρος αὐτοῦ τὸ eAdxurrov.—Hex. 1, 7.4. Compare also 
Ps. 32, 1344. 
---καὶ τότε ἀρξάμενον, 
καὶ μέχρι νῦν ἐνεργοῦν, 
καὶ εἰς τέλος SeSi6v.— Hex. 9, 81 A. Compare also Ps, 59, 190 Β; 
De Fide, 133 B-C; In Gordium, 146 E-147 A. 
---ἄλλοι νοσοῦντες καὶ ἄλλοι εὐπαθοῦντες, 
ἄλλοι ἐν γάμοις καὶ ἄλλοι ἐν πένθεσιν.---ῬβΒ. 59, 190 C-D. Compare 
also De Jejunio 1, 6C; In Barlaam, 140 1). 
Neither the number nor the quality of isocola found in the 
sermons are significant save in showing that the figure is not 
a characteristic of St. Basil’s style. 


b) Parison. 


Parison—two or more successive cola having the same 
general structure—is the first of the Gorgianic figures. It may 
also be isocolon and frequently is such in St. Basil, but its 
chief purpose is the organization of successive cola in such a 
way that their elements correspond in structure and sequence. 
Parison is to be found, with varying popularity, in all the 
orators and rhetoricians from Gorgias’ time down. We have 
seen its importance in the schools of the Second Sophistic. 
Among the eminent sophists Himerius was distinguished for 
his extensive and refined use of parison. With Themistius and 
Libanius parison was a favorite device. 7, 

An excessive use of perfect parison—wherein the correspon- 
dence in structure is exact—unmistakably gives monotony to a 
passage. The sophists found several ways of avoiding this. By 
leaving out a word here and there, by the insertion of an 
occasional chiasmus in the word-sequence, by a chiastic arran- 
gement of the clause elements as a whole, the effect produced by 
parallelism of structure was still maintained, while the variations 
allowed a greater indulgence in the figure than would other- 
wise be possible. Hermogenes® praises Demosthenes for thus 





7 Méridier, 34—35, 
8 II, 332—335. 


GORGIANIC FIGURES ETC, 83 


avoiding monotony, but with Demosthenes monotony was not so 
formidable a problem as it became for the sophists of the Second 
Sophistic, precisely because of the excessive use of highly-wrought 
parisa in that epoch. Besides examples of exact structural corre- 
spondence, consequently, we have also to look for those varia- 
tions which a well-trained orator of the Fourth century must 
have at his command to follow the fashion of the time in his 
indulgence of parison and to avoid the inevitable monotony of 
such indulgence unvaried. In my investigation, therefore, 1 
have separated the parisa into groups corresponding to the 
structure employed. Where the parallelism applies to successive 
sentences or to successions of two clauses and not to successive 
clauses, I have prefixed the epithet “sentence”. My treatment 
of parison, thus divides into the following well-marked groups: 
1. Perfect Parison—two or more successive clauses whose 
structural similarity extends to an exact correspondence 
in words, save for a particle, article, conjunction, or in- 
-troductory word whose intrusion is lost in the general 
perfection of the periods. 
2. Parison—two or more successive clauses having the same 
general structure. 
3. Chiastic Parison—parison varied by a chiastic arran- 
gement, usually of the final words. 
4. Sentence Parison—two or more successive complex or 
compound sentences having the same general structure. 
The number of perfect parison and the variations from it 
found will be an index to St. Basil’s ingenuity in avoiding 
monotony. | 


PrrFrrect Parison (2XAMPLES). 


Followed by less perfect parison:— 
—s yap ἡ ἀρχὴ THs ὁδοῦ οὕπω ὁδός, 
καὶ ἡ ἀρχὴ τῆς οἰκίας οὐκ οἰκία, 
οὕτω καὶ ἡ τοῦ χρόνου ἀρχὴ οὕπω χρόνος 
ἀλλ᾽ οὐδὲ μέρος αὐτοῦ τὸ eAdxicrov.— Hex. 1, 7 A. Compare also 
Ps. 32, 137 E; De Humilitate, 156 D. 
Monotonous regularity :— 
OA Wide vik God ol ψυχρὰ 
τὸ δὲ ὕδωρ ὑγρὸν καὶ ψυχρόν, 
6Ὲ 


84 THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PATRISTIC STUDIES 


6 δὲ ἀὴρ θερμὸς καὶ ὑγρός, 
τὸ δὲ πῦρ θερμὸν καὶ Sypov.i—Hex. 4, 38 A. 
Obvious effort at correspondence:— 
---ὡὧς yap τὸ λογικὸν ἰδιόν ἐστι τοῦ ἀνθρώπου, 
ἡ δὲ ἄνθρωπος φωνὴ σημαντική ἐστι τοῦ ¢éov.—Hex. 4, 37D. 
Compare also in Julittam, 37B; In Princip. Proverb., 99 B; 
In Gordium, 144A. 
Series with a variant:— 
---εὐσταθὴς μὲν yap ὁ βοῦς, 
νωθὴς δὲ ὁ ὄνος. 
θερμὸς δὲ ὁ ἵππος πρὸς ἐπιθυμίαν τοῦ Oise, 
᾿ ἀτιθάσσευτος ὃ λύκος, 
καὶ δολερὸν ἡ ἀλώπηξ 
δειλὸν ἡ €Aadhos.—Hex. 9, 824. Compare also Ps. 1, 918; 
Ps. 32, 134A; De Humilitate, 162 A-B. 
Cumulative, with asyndeton:— 
- τὰς ἐρημίας οἰκίζει, 
τὰς ἀγορὰς σωφρονίζει - 
εἰσαγομένοις στοιχείωσις, 
προκοπτόντων αὔξησις, 
τελειουμένων στήριγμα, 
ἐκκλησίας φωνή.---- 5, 1, 91A. Compare also Advers. Iratos, 
85 C; In Princip. Proverb., 105 Εἰ; In Sanct. Baptisma, 120 C. 
“ae _ 
—vonorov τὴν δύναμιν τοῦ ῥητοῦ 
καὶ θαυμάσεις τὴν φιλανθρωπίαν τοῦ νομοθέτου.---- 5, 14, 112 B. 
Compare also Attende Tibiipsi, 28 E; In Sanct. Baptisma, 
121C; In Ebriosos, 128 B; In Gordium, 145 D. 
With epanaphora and asyndeton:— 
—éri τὸν σταυρὸν ὁ ἀπαθής" 
ἐπὶ τὸν θάνατον ἡ ζωή: 
ἐπὶ τὸν ἅδην τὸ φῶς.---Τη Julittam, 40D. Compare also In 
Divites, 59A; In Ebriosos, 122 Εἰ; In Princip. Proverb., 
136 ΕΣ; In Gordium, 145 Εἰ; In Mamantem, 186 C. 
With assonance:— 
—kal πανταχοῦ πάρεστι, 
καὶ οὐδαμοῦ περιέχεται.----1)6 Fide, 133 E. 
With Isocolon:— 


, ‘ ’ 3 - , 
- καρδίᾳ yap πὶστεύομεν εἰς δικαιοσύνην, 


GORGIANIC FIGURES ETC, 85 


στόματι δὲ ὁμολογοῦμεν εἰς σωτηρίαν.---- ἢ Gordium, 147 ἢ, Com- 
pare also Advers. Iratos, 86 Β: In Gordium, 148 C. 


Parison (EXAMPLES). 
With Isocola:— ' 
—ov νεότης ἐλεεινή, 
οὐ γῆρας αἰδέσιμον ἦν.---Τὰ Gordium, 148 ΕΣ. Compare also In 
Divites, 58 Εἰ; De Fide, 131 D. 
With epanaphora:— 
καὶ πρὸς ἃ πράττει τυποῦται 
καὶ πρὸς ταῦτα σχηματίζεται.---Ὡ 6 Humilitate, 161 ΕἸ. Compare 
also Ps. 14, 111 D; Ps. 32, 138A; Ps. 33, 149 EK. 
Clauses differing by only one word:— 
—<dpylay ἀποδιώκει, 
ἐπιθυμίας ἀτόπους κολάζει.---- Τῇ Princip. Proverb., 110D. Compare 
also Hex. 2, 19C; Hex. 3, 28C; Hex. 5, 46C; In Fam. et 
Siccit., 65.B; Deus non est auct., 76 B. 
— iri ὅσον ὃ ἔξωθεν ἄνθρωπος διαφθείρεται, 
τοσοῦτον ὃ ἔσωθεν ἀνακαινοῦται: —De Jejunio 1, 8 Β. Com- 
pare also Hex. 5, 41°C; Hex. 6, 55 A. 
Introductory word omitted in the second clause: 
—éy δὴ τοῖς τοιούτοις λόγοις FOXY μὲν τὸ ἀνόητον, 
᾿πολλαπλασίον δὲ τὸ ἀσεβές.--- Hex. 6, 56 Ὁ. 
Compare also Ps. 38, 164 Ο; Contra Sabellianos, 1966. 
Only the skeleton of the first clause maintained in the follo- 
wing clauses:— 
-ἵππον μὲν yap ἵππου ποιεῖται διάδοχον, 
καὶ λέοντα λέοντος, 
καὶ ἀετὸν aerov.— Hex. 9, 81 Β. Compare also In Princip. 
Proverb., 108 B; In Mamantem, 186 B. 
Variation in the position of the article.— 
—ov σωφροσύνης τὸ σεμνόν: 
οὐ τὸ τῆς φρονήσεως τέλειον.--- 5. 1, 91 Β. 


Curastic ParIsON (PERFECT) (EXAMPLES). 
--ὅτι ἄλλο μέν τι τοῦ φωτὸς ἡ λαμπρότης, 
ἄλλο δέ τι τὸ ὑποκείμενον τῷ φωτὶ σῶμα.----Ἤχ, 6, 51 Εἰ. Com- 
pare also Hex. 8, 75 Εἰ; Ps. 33, 154C; Contra Sabellianos, 
196 C. 


86 THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PATRISTIC STUDIES 


--- πᾶσαν δὲ φιλονεικίαν σιδήρῳ κρίνειν συνειθισμένοι, 
καὶ αἵματι τὰς μάχας λύειν δεδιδαγμένοι.--- ΜΒ. 7, 102 Εἰ, Com- 
pare also Hex. 5, 47D; Ps. 82, 194), De Jejunio 1, 5A; 
In Sanct. Baptisma, 121 B. 

Two-fold variety.— 

---οὐδεὶς τραύματα τραύματι θεραπεύει, 
οὐδὲ κακῷ τὸ κακὸν ἰᾶται 
οὐδὲ πενίαν τόκοις ἐπανορθοῦται.---Ῥ5. 14, 110. Compare also 
In Gordium, 144A. 


CurastTic PARISON (EXAMPLES). 
-- ἡμῖν τῶν εἰρημένων μισθὸν καὶ 
ὑμῖν καρπὸν ὧν ἠκούσατε-- 8. 1, 97C. Compare also Hex. 4, 
58.4; Ps. 1, 97 B. 
—i ἡ δεξιὰ χαρίζεται τοῦ Ὑψίστου 
ἧς καὶ ὃ μακάριος Δαβὶδ ἐπήσθετο--- 5. 44, 159D. Compare 
also Ps. 33, 148 Εἰ; De Jejunio 2, 114. 


SENTENCE PARISON (EXAMPLES). 
(1) Perfect. 
---φεύγοντες μὲν τὴν ἁμαρτίαν, ὥσπερ τὰ ἄλογα φεύγει τῶν βρωμάτων 
τὰ δηλητήρια" 
διώκοντες δὲ τὴν δικαιοσύνην, ὥσπερ Ka κεῖνα μεταδιώκει τῆς πόας 
τὸ τρόφιμον. 
—Attende Tibiipsi, 17 E. Compare also Ps. 1, 98 D. 
-ὅτι οὐκ ἀπέθανε τὸ παιδίον, ἀλλ᾽ ἀπεδόθη" 
οὐδὲ ἀπετελεύτησεν 6 φίλος, ἀλλ᾽ ἀπεδήμησε --- Τὰ Julittam, 36 E. 
Compare also In Divites, 51 Ὁ. 
—éav φυλάσσῃς, οὐκ ἕξεις 
ἐὰν σκορπίσῃς, οὐκ ἀπολεῖς. ---[ Divites, ὅ8.4. Compare also 
Deus non est auct., 76 Β. 


(2) Not Perfect. 
μὴ Ν Ν a A 3» ΄ 2 Ν ΄ ν 
--- ἔξεστι μὲν γὰρ τῷ πλωτῆρι εἴσω λιμένων κατέχειν τὸ σκάφος, τοὺς 
ἐκ τῶν πνευμάτων κινδύνους προυρωμένῳ 
ἔξεστι δὲ τῷ ὁδοιπόρῳ πόῤῥωθεν ἐκκλίνειν τὰς βλάβας, 
ἐκ τῆς στυγνότητος τοῦ ἀέρος τὴν μεταβολὴν ἀναμένοντι. 
—Hex. 6, 53E. Compare also Ps. 59, 1906. 
- 7 Ν ε / 4 
—olov, καθεύδεις καὶ ὃ χρόνος σε παρατρέχει; 


ἐγρήγορας καὶ ἄσχολος εἶ τὴν διάνοιαν; .---5, 1, 940. 


GORGIANIC FIGURES ETC. 87 


—d μέν, εἰ κοινωνικὸς καὶ φιλάδελφος" 
ὁ δέ, εἰ εὐχάριστος καὶ μὴ τουναντίον βλάσφημος. ----Τπὰ Fam, et Siccit., 
67. A. Compare also Advers. Iratos, 86 E. 

—eé μὲν γὰρ ἀγέννητον, Ilarip: 
εἰ δὲ γεννητόν, ὙΥἷός" 
εἰ δὲ μηδ᾽ ἕτερον τούτων, xticya.—Contra Sabellianos, 194 Ὁ 
Compare also Ps. 7, 1040. 


(3) Chiastic. 
The only examples found were:— 
—rav ἐμπλησθῇ, περὶ ἐγκρατείας φιλοσοφεῖ" 

ὅταν διαπνευσθῇ, ἐπιλανθάνεται τῶν Soypdtwv.—De Jejunio I, 6D. 
-ὁ κατασήπων τὸν σῖτον, τοὺς πεινῶντας οὐ τρέφεις ; 

ὁ τὸν χρυσὸν κατορύσσων, τοῦ ἀγχομένου καταφρονεῖς ;—In Divites, 

δὅ Β. 

- ῥεῖ γὰρ ὁ χρόνος, καὶ οὐκ ἐκδέχεται τὸν βραδύνοντα " 

ἐπείγονται αἱ ἡμέραι. τὸν ὀκνηρὸν παρατρέχουσιν.--- [ἢ Fam. et. 

Siccit., 706. 

Postponing a conclusion on this section to the end of the 
chapter, where the results obtained here will gain more 
significance from a comparison with the results of other sections, 
I may only note in passing that in a figure so fundamental to the 
art of rhetoric, 997 examples of all kinds of parison certainly 
constitute a mgderate use of the figure in so broad an expanse 
of text. 9 


c) HomororELEuTON (PARomoroN). 


Homoioteleuton—wherein the symmetry of cola structurally 
corresponding is further emphasized by similarity of sound in 
the concluding word or words of each—was a device challen- 
ging the ingenuity of sophists and therefore dear to them as a 
means of display. In the search for symmetry it follows natur- 
ally from parison. When used to excess, it gives to a passage 
a character highly poetic. In all figures of sound rhetorical 
design must be very evident. The more numerous and more 
closely concentual the concluding syllables are, the greater is 
the probability of design As a rule I did not look for rhetorical 
design unless the concluding words of corresponding clauses 





9 cf. table on p. 93 ff. 


88 THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PATRISTIC STUDIES 


showed a correspondence in accent and a correspondence in 
sound in the last syllable at least. 
Examples. 
Isocolon:— 
—7 τῷ χρόνῳ papaveis, 
ἢ νόσῳ SuaAvOeis.—Hex. 5, 44 E. Compare also Hex. 7, 64 B; 
In Sanct. Baptisma, 116 A. 
Marked assonance.— 
—<drav λοιδορούμενοι εὐλογῶμεν, 
βλασφημούμενοι παρακαλῶμεν, : 
καταπονούμενοι edxapirTopev,—Ps, 33, 144A. Compare also 
In Illud Lucae, 44D; Quod Mundanis, 172 D. 
--καὶ ὥσπερ ἕπεται τῷ ἀγαθῷ ἡ ἀφθονία, 
οὕτως ἀκολουθεῖ τῷ διαβόλῳ ἡ Bacxavia.De Invidia, 91 Β. 

Compare also 5.1, 98 E. 

Correspondence in only the final syllable, but evidently designed : 
-- τὸν διασκεδάζοντα βουλὰς ἐθνῶν, 

καὶ ἀθετοῦντα λογισμοὺς Aadv.—Ps. 32, 138 E. 

49 examples in 46 sermons, with 24 sermons containing no 
assured examples and only five sermons containing more than 
two examples, argue an acquaintance and an occasional use 
of the figure on St. Basil’s part, but no predilection for it. 
This exhibition of restraint is in harmony with what I observed 
about his use of the Figures of Sound. 10 


(d) ANTITHESIS. 


Antithetical structure is so inherent in the Greek language 
that in the search for antithesis—i. e. a parison formulating an 
opposition of ideas—circumspection is needed in detecting 
rhetorical design. Antithesis, we have seen, antedates Gorgias 
in Greek literature. Aristotle 11 calls attention to the efficacy 
of the figure for the clear presentation of ideas through the 
juxtaposition of opposed parts. Its architectural beauty, its 
very utility gave it a vogue in Attic Greece beyond the Athenian’s 
natural bent for its undesigned employment. We look for its 
excessive use in the Second Sophistic not alone because of its 





10 cf. p. 49, 
11 Rhet. ITI, 9. 


GORGIANIC FIGURES ETC. 89 


Attic stamp but because of that peculiar penchant of the later 
sophist for antithetical display so forcefully illustrated by his 
abuse of oxymoron. And in point of fact it is so employed. 
Polemo, Dion of Prusa, Himerius, Libanius alike use and abuse 
antithesis. : 

The antithesis, both in the earlier prose12 and in the Se- 
cond Sophistic, is liable to one misuse especially. Ideas anti- 
thetically expressed sometimes do not belong to that rigid 
cast, but the orator, in his love for the figure, diffuses the 
thought through unnecessary words to achieve a verbal balancing. 
This obviously results in a loss of conciseness. Again the orator, 
in his search for impeccable symmetry, may establish a struc- 
tural opposition between the words which is not justified by 
their meanings. 

The concerns of Christianity contain much that readily lends 
itself to antithetical presentation—the antitheses between things 
as they are and things as they should be. The paradoxes of © 
the Faith furnish materials that could accentuate in a Christian 
orator sophistically trained the sophistic predilection for anti- 
thesis. St. Gregory of Nazianzus,!? St. Gregory of Nyssa ‘4 
and St. John Chrysostom ‘5 find abundant opportunity in this fact. 

In frequency and elaborateness St. Basil falls behind St.Gregory 
of Nazianzus and St. John Chrysostom in his use of antitheses 
arising from Christian sources. The following are typical: 
Body and soul:— 

—6rt θνητὸν μέν σου τὸ σῶμα, 
ἀθάνατος δὲ ἡ ψυχή. 

ἡ μὲν οἰκεία τῇ σαρκὶ ταχὺ παρεχομένη: 

ἡ δὲ συγγενὴς τῇ ψυχῇ μὴ δεχομένη περιγραφήν.---Αὐἴοπάθ Tibiipsi, 

18E. Compare also De Grat. Act., 32 E. 

Earthly dishonour and heavenly reward:— 

---ὀἀτιμίαν δὲ καταδικαζομένη, 
ἵνα τῶν στεφάνων τῆς δόξης καταξιωθῇ.---- Τὴ Julittam, 84 Β. Com- 
pare also In Gordium, 148 Β. 





12 Robertson, 15. 
13 Guignet, 123 ff. 
14 Méridier, 174. 
15 Ameringer, 49 ff. 


90 THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PATRISTIC STUDIES 


Punishment of sinners and reward of the Just:— 
-- φόβον μὲν τῶν τοῖς ἁμαρτωλοῖς ἀπειληθέντων, 
ἐπιθυμίαν δὲ τῶν τοῖς δικαίοις ἡτοιμασμένων.----Τἢ Princip. Proverb., 
110 Β. 
--τὴν φαιδρότητα τῶν δικαίων ἐν τῇ λαμπρᾷ διανομῇ τῶν δώρων, 
καὶ τὴν κατήφειαν τῶν ἁμαρτωλῶν ἐν τῷ σκότει τῷ βαθυτάτῳ.---Τὸ 
Sanct. Baptisma, 122 A. Compare also Ps. 45, 170 Β. 
The Father and the Son:— 
- οὐκοῦν Yids μὲν 6 παρακαλῶν, 
Πατὴρ δὲ ὁ rapaxadovpevos—Contra Sabellianos, 191 D. 
Truth and science:— 
—<ért οὕτως ὀξὺ περὶ τὰ μάταια βλέποντες, 
ἑκόντες πρὸς τὴν σύνεσιν τῆς ἀληθείας ἀπετυφλώθησαν.---Ηοχ. 1, 4 D. 
Young trees and old trees:— 
—Tois μὲν yap νέοις καὶ εὐθαλέσιν ὁ φλοιὸς περιτέταται" 
τοῖς δὲ γηράσκουσιν οἷον ῥυσσοῦται καὶ ἐκτραχύνεται.---Ἡ 6Θχ. 5, 46 Εἰ. 
Soul in temptation :— 
-- ὧδε βλέπει σαρκὸς εὐπάθειαν, 
ἐκεῖ δουλαγωγίαν σαρκός" 
ὧδε μέθην, ἐκεῖ νηστείαν" 
ὧδε γέλωτας ἀκρατεῖς, ἐκεῖ δάκρυον δαψιλές" 
ἐνταῦθα ὄρχησιν, κἀκεῖ προσευχήν * 
αὐλοὺς ὧδε, κἀκεῖ στεναγμούς" 
ὧδε πορνείαν, κἀκεῖ παρθενίαν.---- Ps. 1, 95 D. 
Usurer and debtor:— 
—tod μὲν χαίροντος ἐπὶ τῇ αὐξήσει τῶν τόκων, 
τοῦ δὲ στενάζοντος ἐπὶ τῇ προσθήκῃ τῶν συμφορῶν.---ῬΒ. 14, 108 Εἰ 
ἴο 109 Α. 
Our moral acts:— 
—édorn οὖν πρᾶξις ἢ ἐπὶ τὰ κάτω ἡμᾶς κατάγει, 
βαρύνουσα ἡμᾶς διὰ τῆς ἁμαρτίας, 
ἢ ἐπὶ τὰ ἄνω κουφίζει, 
πτεροῦσα ἡμᾶς πρὸς τὸν θεόν.---Ῥ5. 29, 126 D-E. 
Pleonastic antithesis :— 
—kakeivov αἰτίας adins, 
---καὶ σεαυτὸν xataxpivets.—Adyers. [ratos, 86E. Compare also 
Deus non est auct., 79 C; In Princip. Proverb., 106 E. 
Chiastic:— 
---ὡς μήτε δι’ ὑπερβολὴν καταφλέξαι τὴν γῆν; 


GORGIANIC FIGURES ETC. 91 


μήτε διὰ τὴν ἔλλειψιν κατεψυγμένην αὐτὴν καὶ ἄγονον ἀπολιπεῖν.--- 
Hex. 6, 608. 
-καὶ τῶν μὲν παρόντων τὴν αἴσθησιν ὑπερβαίνων, 

πρὸς δὲ τὴν ἐλπίδα τῶν αἰωνίων ἀποτείνων τὴν ἔννοιαν.---])6 Grat. 

Act., 82 ἘΞ Compare also ‘Hex. 3, 28D; Ps. 29, 126C-D; 

Deus non est auct., 76A-B. 

14 sermons do not contain an antithesis. While we have 
not the facts for accurately comparing St. Basil’s use of anti- 
thesis with that of his contemporaries a total of only 161 examples 
of a figure in such constant use in his time in so ample an ex- 
panse of text as the 46 sermons cover is remarkable. The 
undoubted quality of most of the examples cited alone saves him 
from the charge of indifference. 


- e) CHIASMuS. 


Chiasmus—wherein the succession of the elements of one 
clause is reversed in the next—is one of the devices used by 
the sophists to preserve symmetry while counteracting the 
monotony of the oft-repeated parison. It is a form of parallelism 
less obvious and more subtle than parison. It calls for a nice 
skill in avoiding the destruction of symmetry. The sophist 
Himerius and, after him, St. Gregory of Nazianzus were eminently 
successful in its use. 16 
Examples:—éuBeByxdra τῇ οὐσίᾳ τῶν ὅλων, καὶ 

τὰ καθ᾽ ἕκαστον μέρη πρὸς ἄλληλα cvvappdsovra,—Hex. 1,8. Δ. Com- 

pare also Hex. 2, 14 A; Hex. 8, 17 Ὁ. 

- οὔτε δικαιοσύνης τιμωμένης, 
οὔτε κατακρινομένης τῆς dpaptias,—Hex. 6, ὅ7.Α. Compare also 
Hex. 8, 73 E. 

-ἐτρέφοντο of πεινῶντες, Kal 
ὃ τρέφων ἐπολεμεῖτο,---1)6 Invidia, 93 E-94 A. Compare also In 
Princip. Proverb., 110 D. 

---προφητῶν mpocdpia, 

σκῆπτρα πατριαρχῶν, 

μαρτύρων orépavor,—In Sanct. Baptisma, 122 Ο. Compare also 

Ps. 1, 90 B; De Jejunio 1,7D; In Illud Lucae, 49 B. 

While not using chiasmus to excess—there are only 190 in- 





16 Guignet, 112. 


92 THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PATRISTIC STUDIES 


stances in all—St. Basil shows a consistent liking for the 
figure throughout his sermons. Only three sermons do not yield 
examples. 


f) ANTITHETICAL CHIASMUS. 


Antithetical chiasmus—an antithesis of thought cast in the 
structure of a chiasmus—is rare. 
—oute δικαιοσύνης τιμωμένης, 

οὔτε κατακρινομένης τῆς ἁμαρτίας,---6χ. 6, 57 A. 
- οὔτε περιττόν τι ὃ κτίσας προσέθηκεν, ἡ 

οὔτε ἀφεῖλε τῶν ἀναγκαίων.---- Hex. 9, 85 Β. 
--- προφητεύει τὰ μέλλοντα" 

ἱστορίας ὑπομιμνήσκει.--- Ὁ 5, 1, 90 Β. 

The only other examples found occur in Ps. 33, 148A; In 
XL Martyres, 1510; De Humilitate, 160C. 


g) PARALLELISM. 


In addition to the formal cases of parallelism previously con- 
sidered in this chapter, I frequently ran upon traces of parallelism 
not fully developed—i. e. corresponding phrases and clauses of 
a parallel construction in succeeding sentences not otherwise 
bearing traces of parallelism. Such correspondences seemed 
not without importance in a chapter on St. Basil’s parallelism, 
and I have therefore included them. The frequency of their oc- 
currence seems to indicate something of the thoroughness where- 
with the disciples of Second Sophistic rhetoric were trained in 
the use of its devices. 

Examples :— 
--ἡ κεφαλὴ αὐτῶν ἐπὶ γῆν προσνένευκεν, ἐπὶ γαστέρα βλέπει, καὶ 
τὸ ταύτης ὑδὺ ἐκ παντὸς τρόπου διώκει. 

ἡ σὴ κεφαλὴ πρὸς οὐρανὸν διανέστηκεν" οἱ ὀφθαλμοί σου τὰ ἄνω 

Bdérovew.—Hex. 9, 81 E. Compare also Ps. 45, 175A; De Je- 

junio 1, 6B. 

—ddAovotpeba δὲ καὶ κατὰ Tas ὀργάς, θηριώδη τινὰ κατάστασιν 
ἀναλαμβάνοντες. 

ἀλλοιούμεθα καὶ κατὰ τὰς ἐπιθυμίας. κτηνώδεις γιγνόμενοι διὰ τοῦ 

καθ᾽ ἡδονὴν Biov.—Ps. 44,159 A. Compare also Ps. 1, 94D; In 

Julittam, 34A; In Divites, 59C. 


GORGIANIC FIGURES ETC. 93 


—ov βλέπει τοὺς κινδύνους, ἀλλὰ τοὺς στεφάνους ὁ μάρτυς" 
οὐ φρίττει τὰς πληγάς, ἀλλ᾽ ἀριθμεῖ τὰ βραβεῖα" 
οὐχ ὁρᾷ τοὺς κάτω μαστιγοῦντας δημίους, ἀλλὰ τοὺς ἄνωθεν εὐφη- 
μοῦντας ἀγγέλους φαντάζεται - 
οὐ σκοπεῖ τῶν κινδύνων τὸ πρόσκαιρον, ἀλλὰ τὸ τῶν ἐπάθλων aidviov.— 
In Barlaam, 139A. Compare also De Humilitate, 158 A. 
Note the following parallelism interspersed amid scriptural 
quotations.— 
---διὰ προφητῶν διδασκόμενος" 
διὰ ψαλμῶν νουθετούμενος.----(ῬΒ8]τὰ 33, 6.) 
δι’ ἀποστόλων ᾿εὐαγγελιζόμενος.---(Α οὐδ 2, 88.) 
ὑπ᾽ αὐτοῦ τοῦ Κυρίου rpocAapPBavopevos.—(Matthew 11, 28.) In 
Sanct. Baptisma, 114 B-C. Compare also In Fam. et Siccit., 
65 E-66 A; In Barlaam, 139 Ὁ. 3 


FREQUENCY OF THE Various Devices oF PARALLELISM 
IN THE SERMONS. 























g gsigis| |3 gis] §\_ 
ElalszlE(ZISlElele#lzlezigzlg 
fie ee 5, 8,3) Ξ) 8 5 8 |Ss leas 
Ε 8,5 ἢ | δ, 8 ξ" 
[2] mM m 
Hex. 1 (580) | 4 3 2lelé6lz7ie 2 
» 2 (807) | 2/12 4}4} 17 
» 8 (65) | 5} 5) 1/8\7/3}1/5]| 1 1 
» 4 (893) | 7| 3} 1... ἃ [ἃ 2 1 
» ὅ (870) | 210] 3/4/61] 7 8:1} 1 
» 6 (746) | 6/19} 1}1/1} 2/1] 4 4} 1 2 
ah rh δ 1 49 42 θ 1 1: 
oh Be Ore) | 18 1 4 7 4 
» 9 (807) |11| 9 3 1 6 1 fobs 
Ps. 1 (449) 1719 3/2/11; |16| 2/2] 1 1 
Αγ 8} Bt he 1 2 1 1 
» 14 (872) [9418] 8 1 3 8 
» 28 (636) | 7/16) 115 1 9 1 
» 29 (418) | 2) 9| 1 2/1) 1 
» 82 (651) |10| 4, 1 |1/1/6 4 3 
» 88. (968) | 8/10} ἃ [7111 5 1 
» 44° 687) | 4] 7] 4-11 9 1 
» 45 (407) | 4| 7] 1 2/1 2 2 1 
» 48 (682) | 8118 3 1 
» 89 (242) | 21 2 1 9 1 [9 



































94 ΤῊΝ CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PATRISTIC STUDIES 





















































si | si€ig].|2)_| 2/2) $. 
ς- ἘΠ ΒΩ 9. 2/3 [88] 3 39|54}Ξ 
ele Pela] a) 9 |3|8 58 528 2 
2; ἐξ ἢ 2) | gal er | 
Θ RMR; Ὁ m 
Ps. 61 (336) | 8.11 1 4 
, 114 (276) | 3| 2 1 
De Jejunio 1 (475) |18/27| 7 12 1 
De Jejunio 2 (830) | 611 1 1 4 
Attende Tibiipsi (480) | 7161 5 511 1 
De Grat. Act. (459) | 418 vA it ΝΣ 1 2 
In Julittam (580) | 9)12; 2) 1 5 141 4 
In Illud Lucae (406) |12;18; 2) 1] 38 4/1/11 1 
In Divites (601) | 27 | 29 jy ae As ee | 1.8 
In Fam. et Siccit. (584) | 6 14 9 2 1/4 
Deus non est auct. (598) | 3/13 1 2) 3 1 
Advers. Iratos (452) 112] 5) 1 5 1 1 2 
De Invidia (359) |15| 9 Loyd 7 
InPrincip.Proverb. (895) |11/10) 1/2)1{|7 5 1 2 
In Sanct. Baptisma (522) [29) 91 2/2 10; 1 | 3 2 
In Ebriosos (423) [1819 te 6 
De Fide (185) |11| 7} 2 2 1 
In Princip. erat V. (248) | 9) ὃ 
In Barlaam (141) | 2; 1] ἃ 1 1 2 
In Gordium (425) [16.185 2 1/3 4 
In XL Martyres (892) |15/ 6] 1 2 eres 8 
De Humilitate (353) | 6) 5) 3 2 1 1 
Quod Mundanis (633) 4 2111/4 1 2 
Ad Adolescentes (627) | 1) 3 1 1 
In Mamantem (244) 11| 8 1 1 
Contra Sabellianos (444) [18.18.) 2 1| 2 7 














1407 instances of parallelism of all kinds bespeak a frequent 
but not excessive use of the Figures of Parallelism. When I 
consider that the text of the sermons covers 563 half-pages of 
the Benedictine edition, I feel justified in characterizing Basil’s 
use of parallelism as restrained. We have not at hand detailed 
materials for comparison with his contemporaries, but we are 
assured of the excessive employment of the Gorgianic figures 
by Libanius and Himerius, and we know that upon devices of 
parallelism more than upon any other group of figures the Se- 
cond Sophistic leaned in its extravagant pursuit of the Attic 
ideal. These amply attested facts attest in turn the moderation 


-GORGIANIC FIGURES ETC. 95 


of St. Basil. Consistent with this generalization is his compari- 
tively moderate use of antithesis and his remarkable restraint 
in using sophistic homoioteleuton. The very few examples of 
sentence parison is another instance of his moderation. The 
following table summarizes the disposition of parallelism in the 
sermons. 














Clause parison of all kinds Homoioteleuton 
940 49 
Antithesis of all kinds Sentence parison of all kinds 
114 62 
Chiasmus 
194° 


Since St. Basil is so restrained in his employment of the 
recognized figures of parallelism, the avoidance of monotony 
is not a large problem for his art. He shows merely traces of 
sophistic training in his occasional use of the variations of more 
usual parallelism. The frequency of these variations relative to 
their orthodox forms is shown in the following summary. 

















Parison and Homoioteleuton Chiastic Parison. Antithesis 
905 84 ; 101 
Chiastic Antithesis_ Sentence Parison Chiastic Sentence Parison 
13 , 57 5 ν 


St. Basil’s ready skill in the moderate range he allowed these 
figures is shown not only by the excellence of the examples 
quoted above but also by the following ratio:— 


Perfect Parison Parison Chiasmus 
381 475 198° y'* 





This chapter again shows St. Basil deserving the adjective 
restrained on the whole; again using a figure with ease and 
skill, with an occasional instance of elaborate art, with here 
and there a sermon approaching sophistic frequency, 17 but even 
thus emphasizing the more his general moderation. 





17 Ps. 1 contains 74 examples in 10 pages; Ps. 14, 51 examples in 
12 pages; De Jejunio 1, 67 examples in 12 pages; In Divites, 70 examples 
in 15 pages; In Sanct. Baptisma, 59 examples in 12 pages; In Gordium, 
41 examples in 10 pages. 


CHAPTER XI 
THE METAPHOR 


The metaphor is not a device peculiar to the sophists. Its 
germs at least are found among even the most unimaginative 
of peoples, reflected in every epoch of their literature. But 
this trope, like so many other figures in the heritage of the 
Second Sophistic, receives a treatment and bears a stamp un- 
mistakably evincing the sophistic manner. This treatment and 
this stamp are best understood by recalling some facts about 
the nature of the metaphor. 

First of all, the metaphor is useful in illuminating vividly 
and suddenly a point not easily understood by the audience 
from its subtle or esoteric nature; for the emphatic expression 
of emotions; for effective brevity in any case. If the brevity 
is dispensed with, if the action is prolonged, the very strength | 
of the figure palls and the prolonged metaphor becomes a 
strain on the imagination of the auditor, and in excessive cases, 
an enigma. 

The pleasure which the metaphor gives to the auditor, if 
analyzed, will be found to rest partly on the intellectual acti- 
vity it calls into play in the effort necessary to establish logical 
relations between two ideas; partly on the element of surprise 
thus invoked; partly on the originality of connections suddenly 
revealed. For a very imaginative people its strongest appeal 
lies in the new world suddenly flashed upon the retina of the 
mind, in the transportation of the auditor from the trivialities 
of ordinary language and the trivialities of ordinary existence.1 

These possibilities of the metaphor have only to be con- 
nected with the known tendencies of the Second Sophistic to 
foresee the career of the figure in the hands of the sophists. 





1 cf. Chaignet, 483 ff. 


THE METAPHOR 97 


Display of skill, excessive ornamentation, the search for the 
novel and unreal—these moving traits of the Second Sophistic 
transform a figure useful and beautiful in its proper sphere 
into an extravagance that jades the taste by its ornateness, 
clouds the idea by its elaborateness, fatigues the intellect by 
its frequency. An idea is good in the sophist’s eyes which is 
capable of being richly treated and of multiple variations— 
which gives the sophist an opportunity, in other words. The 
beauty founded upon harmony and proportion of ideas, natural 
associations, clear connections, true analogies is here sacrificed 
to effects that are shocking in the most pronounced sophists 
and that do frequent violence to good taste in the mildest. 

Under the patronage of the sophists there grew up a verit- 
able technique of the metaphor; a formidable, complex bag 
of tricks to a cursory glance at the results of its employment, 
but resolvable into a few well-defined constituents on close 
inspection. As to subject-matter most of the sophistic meta- 
phors may be assigned to one of the following four classes: 
(1) metaphors based on war and its associations; (2) metaphors 
based on athletic games; (3) metaphors based on: the hippo- 
drome; (4) metaphors of the sea. Characteristics especially 
sophistic are: (1) the meticulous correspondence of the objects 
compared and the attempt to justify this comparison in all 
the details of the two objects; (2) a theatrical manner of 
development; (3) metaphors of pathos; (4) redundancy of meta- 
phors, i.e. the presentation of the same aspect of an object 
through many metaphors based on varied provinces of thought 
and experience; (5) the elaborate, prolonged development given 
to certain metaphors, clause on clause, sentence on sentence. 
Sometimes the sophist leaves the figure and returns to it after 
a space, drawing out all the possibilities of the metaphor that 
a most fertile imagination can suggest. 

With the serious purpose of the Christian orators, the 
practical properties of the metaphor were again invoked—as 
a vehicle of clarity. The theological conflicts of the Fourth 
century affected even the laity so intimately that the abstract 
terms, the specialized language of philosophy and theology, 
necessarily found entrance into popular sermons and, in clari- 


fying ideas so represented, the metaphor was a most efficacious 
7 


98 ΤῊΝ CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PATRISTIC STUDIES 


instrument. The abundance of metaphors in the Old and New 
Testaments likewise contributed to the Christian use of that 
figure. In the Christian orators of the Fourth century the 
likening of martyrs to athletes; the personification of abstract 
ideas; the metaphors based on tempests, medicine, a shepherd 
and his flock, a debtor and creditor are more Christian than 
pagan in subject matter.2 But even so, St. Gregory of Nyssa 
is a veritable sophist in his use of metaphor;3 St. Gregory of 
Nazianzus shows a sophistic facility only a little less remark- 
able,4 while St. John Chrysostom surpasses both in prodigal 
exuberance.’ In seeing how St. Basil measures up to them 
we shall first review examples that seem more closely joined 
to the Christian tradition either in content or purpose, keeping 
a sharp outlook, however, for evidences of a sophistic manner 
in their development. We shall then pass on to categories 
undoubtedly pagan. Such a division is artificial, of course. 
Much to be found in one group will also be found in the 
other. The exigencies of exposition alone justify their dis- 
tinction. 

As a vehicle of clarity and emphasis by substituting the 
concrete for the abstract. Note redundancy.—‘In the few 
words which have occupied us this morning we have discovered 
a depth of thought so profound that we utterly despair of the 
sequel. If the fore-court of the sanctuary is such, if the fore- 
gates of the temple are so awful and splendid, if its surpassing 
beauty thus astounds the eyes of the soul, what will be the 
holy of holies? Who will presume to dare its innermost shrine? 
Who will gaze upon its secrets? Forbidden is the view of them, 
and the expression of one’s thought on them is extremely 
difficult.” —Hex. 2, 12 A-B. 

Compare also De Jejunio 2, 15C. 

Note correspondence of details:— 

—“Blessed is the man who has not tarried in the way of 
sinners, but with wiser counsel has betaken himself to pious 
conversation. For two are the roads and opposed are they 





2 ef. Méridier, 97ff.; Guignet, 131ff.; Delahaye, 211 ff. 
3 Méridier, 115. 

4 Guignet, 157. 

5 Ameringer, 67. 


THE METAPHOR 99 


to each other. One is broad and spacious; the other, narrow 
and confined. ‘T'wo also are the guides, each of them trying 
to draw on the traveller. The gentle downward path has a 
deceitful guide, the wicked demon, who draws those who 
follow him through pleasure to destruction. The rough and 
up-hill highway holds a good angel, who leads those who fol- 
low through laborious virtue to a happy consummation.”— 
Ps. 1, 95 B-C. 

Compare also Attende Tibiipsi, 19 Ὁ. 
—‘“But, if forsaking the narrow road that leads to safety, you 
travel the broad highway of sin, I fear lest even to the end 
travelling that broad highway, you find a lodging in harmony 
with your journey.” In Sanct. Baptisma, 120 E. 
—“Straightway the winnowing-shovel separates the chaff from 
the wheat, the light and unstable it divides from the fruitful, 
and what is fit for spiritual food it turns over to the farmers.” 
—In Mamantem, 187 E. 

A poetic touch:— 
—“Thus, to the psalmist not to be spurned is the deep which 
the inventors of allegory consign to the ranks of evil. The 
psalmist welcomes it to the general choir of creation and the 
deep, in its own tongue, sings a harmonious hymn to the 
creator.”—Hex. 3, 32 A. Compare also De Invidia, 96 B-C. 
—“Tet us all hasten on to attain it (i.e. the consummation 
of all things), full of fruit and good works; and thus planted 
in the house of the Lord, we shall flower in the courts of our 
God.”—Hex. 5, 49 D. 

Dramatic and redundant, almost an ecphrasis, is the follow- 
ing:— 
—“For again, as you know, the devil made clear his rage 
against us and, having armed himself with the flame of fire, 
made war upon the sacred enclosures of the church. But 
again our Common Mother was’ victorious and turned his 
weapon against the enemy himself; nor did he accomplish 
ought but the display of his hatred. Grace blew against the 
attacks of the devil and the temple remained unharmed. The 
storm raised by our enemy could not shake the rock upon 
which Christ had built the fold for his flock. Imagine how 
the devil is groaning to-day, not having achieved what he 

ike 


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100 THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PATRISTIC STUDIES 


planned. For he set fire to the neighboring pyre of the church 
that he might harrass our success. And everywhere the flames, 
fanned by the violent blasts of the devil, spread over the 
edifice and fed upon the air, forced to touch the dwelling 
of the gods and drag us into a community of misfortune. 
But the Savior turned it back on the sender and bade him 
turn his anger against himself. The enemy prepared the arrow 
of his cunning, but was kept from releasing it, or rather he 
did release it, but it turned against his own head.”—Quod 
Mundanis, 170B. Remarkable beyond the redundancy and 
dramatic qualities of the above passage is his reference to 
the church as the temple of the gods. Not only does he speak 
of a plurality of divine beings but he uses a purely pagan word 
in referring to their dwelling. : 

Compare also In Barlaam, 141 A-B. 

Biblical phraseology (referring to the famine and drought in 
Cappadocia). 

—“New Isrealites, seeking a. new Moses and his miraculous 
staff, that the rocks stricken anew may minister to the wants of 
the thirsty people and strange clouds may rain down manna.”— 
In Fam. et Siccit., 63 A. Compare also Hex. 1, 2D; Ps. 1, 94C; 
Ps. 33, 150A; In Sanct. Baptisma, 1181): Quod Mundanis, 168 E. 
(referring to the desertion of a martyr from the place of tor- 
ture and a centurion taking his place).—“Judas departed and 
Matthias took his place.”"-—In XL Martyres, 154 E. 

- Spiritual food:— 

—*“Instead of extravagant dishes of manifold delicacies, em- 
bellish and sanctify your tables with the memory of my words.” — 
Hex. 9, 88E. 

—“Wherefore the church, from afar, with high-raised cry, 
summons her nurslings in order that of whom she travailled 
before, she may now bring forth and, having weaned them from 
the instruction of catechumens, may furnish for their palates the 
solid food of dogma.”—In Sanct. Baptisma, 114A. 

—“I shall exhort each soul to recall these events (i. 6. the 
scenes of martyrdom) for himself and to depart nourished by 
his own food and gladdened with his own viaticum.”—In Ma- 
mantem, 185C. Compare also Ps. 33, 149B; De Jejunio 2, 15H; 
In XL Martyres, 156B; Ad Adolescentes, 179E. 


THE METAPHOR eas OL 501 


Personification :— 
—“But while I am discussing with you the first evening of the 
world, evening surprises me, stopping my discourse.” —Hex.2, 21 E. 
—‘“Instead of violently buffeting the neighboring shore, she 
(i. 6. the sea) embraces it with peaceful caresses.”’—Hex 4, 38H. 
—“And they (i. 6. the virtues) do not willingly abandon us in 
our labors on earth, unless we, having willingly and violently 
introduced vices, avoid them. And they go before us, hastening 
on to the future life, and place their possessor among the angels, 
and shine forever under the eyes of the creator.”—Advers. 
_Iratos, 83C. Compare also De Jejunio 1, 4D; In Ebriosos, 
129 Β; In Barlaam, 140C-D; In XL Martyres, 151C. 

Travail :— 
—*“‘Liet the earth bring forth’. Behold, I pray you, how the 
chilled and barren earth at this brief command travailled and 
hastily brought forth its fruit, casting aside its sad, mournful 
coat and wrapping itself in more joyous coverings, glad of its 
proper adornment and showing forth its fruits of countless 
kinds.”—Hex. 5, 41C. Compare also Hex. 2, 15 B; Hex. 7, 62H; 
Ps. 14, 111B; Ps. 33, 150E-151A; Ps. 114, 201A; In Julittam, 
36 D. 

Redundant:— 
—/(referring to the return of fish to the Euxine sea after breed- 
ing time.) “Who set them off? What royal command? What 
edict in the market-place proclaims the appointed day? Who 
guides them on their journey.”— Hex. 7,66E. Compare also 
Hex. 1, 3E. 
—“A psalm puts devils to flight, facilitates the aid of angels, 
is ἃ weapon against the fears of the night, a relief from the 
toil of the day, a security for children, a decoration for youth, 
a consolation for elders, for women an ornament most proper. 
It peoples the deserts; it calms the market-places; is a text- 
book for beginners, a means of increase for advanced students; 
the support of the learned, the voice of the church. It gladdens 
the festal-day; it creates divine melancholy; for the psalm forces 
tears from the heart of stone. The psalm is the work of angels, 
spiritual incense.”—Ps. 1, 91A. Compare also De Jejunio 1, 6B; 
10B; 13C; 14D-E; In Princip. erat V., 138 B-C; In XL Mar- 
tyres, 149C-D; 1551): 156B. 


τ: 102°. THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PATRISTIC STUDIES 


—“We must needs, then, if we wish to run in safety the road 
of this life and offer our soul and body alike free from the 
wounds of shame and receive the crown of victory, have the 
eyes of our soul ever on the watch. We must look askance at 
all things of pleasure and pass them by.”—Quod Mundanis, 
163D. Compare also 170A-B. 

—“Schism is proper to the Jews, but let not the Church of 
God, who has received a seamless garment, woven of heavenly 
texture and preserved by her soldiers without a rent, the gar- 
ment that clothed Christ, let not the Church rend it.”—In 
Mamantem, 188A. 

The curing of souls:— 

—“Rejoice, for an efficacious remedy has been given you by 
the physician for ridding yourself of sin.”—De Jejunio 1, 2B. 
—‘“Tf reason is the physician of sorrow, drunkenness must be 
the worst of evils, since it hinders the curing of the soul.’— 
In Julittam, 48 B. 

—*“For if with calm reason you can cut out the bitter root of 
wrath, you will eliminate many vices in the same act.”—Advers. 
Iratos, 90D. 

—“Therefore he neither admits a physician nor can he find a 
remedy for his passion, and yet the scriptures are filled with 
such remedies.”—De Invidia, 92A. Compare also Ps. 1, 93B; 
Deus non est auct., 80C; De Humilitate, 156E. 

A shepherd and his flock:— 

—“What grievous wolves dispersing the flock of God have not 
taken their departure from these words (i. e. ‘Darkness was 
upon the face of the deep’) to assault souls.”—Hex. 2, 15D. 
—“But Death was the shepherd from Adam’s time up to the 
government of Moses, until the True Shepherd came who laid 
down his life for his sheep, who gathered them to himself, led 
them from the guard-house of Hades into the morning of the 
resurrection, and gave them over to the righteous, his holy 
angels, that they might shepherd them.”—Ps. 48, 186A. Com- 
pare also In Mamantem 187B; 187C; 188C. 

St. Basil, like the Gregories and Chrysostom, appreciated the 
practical utility of the metaphor, but the research for identity - 
of correspondence in the objects compared, as exhibited in the 
above examples, the theatrical quality of some, the poetic calm 


THE METAPHOR 103 


of others, the excessive redundancy become almost a litany in 
some cases, all bear witness to the manner of the sophist im- 
printed on St. Basil as on his Christian contemporaries. Com- 
mingled with this pagan stream are Biblical influences, seen in 
the metaphors on curing souls, of a shepherd and his flock, of 
the rock of the church of God. The frequent use of ὠδίνω in 
him recalls a convention of Christian oratory soars wide-spread 
in the Fourth century. 

In the above examples occur metaphors belonging to the four- 
fold source from which spring most of the pagan metaphors, those 
based on war, athletics, the hippodrome, the sea. Further examples 
will illustrate Basil’s use of metaphors spose ce pagan. 

1. War:— 

—“The cranes in night-time keep watch in turn; some sleep, 
while others, making the rounds, gain all security for those in 
slumber; then, when the time of his watch is finished, the sentry, 
having cried out, goes to sleep and the one succeeding him re- 
pays the security which he himself enjoyed. You will observe 
the same good order in their manner of flight. For a time 
one assumes the leadership and, when he has guided the flight 
for a fixed time, passing to the rear, he consigns to the one 
coming after him the guidance of the march.”—Hex. 8, 74 Εἰ. 
—“Let the stomach grant a truce to the mouth. Let it strike 
a.five days’ truce.”—De Jejunio 1, 6D. 

—(Speaking of irascible men.) “Whatever comes into sight 
becomes a weapon for their wrath. But if they find an evil 
equal to their own coming from their opponent’s camp, taking 
the field against them, they find another cause for wrath and 
madness. Thus they fall together, giving and taking such treat- 
ment as men have reason to, experience who are generalled by 
such a devil.”—Advers. Iratos, 84 _D-E. 

—‘“These words (‘In the beginning was the Word’) will be the 
strongest wall against the onsets of the besiegers. These are 
a fortification for souls, secure for those who advance using 
them as shields.”—In Princip. erat V., 138 B-C. 

—“Let us get together about these matters. Let us pursue 
the arts of peace. Let us cease the long war against holiness, 
casting aside the sharpened weapons of wickedness, turning our 
spears into ploughs and our swords into scythes.”—Contra Sabel- 


104 THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PATRISTIC STUDIES 


lianos, 190E. Compare also Hex. 1,5D; Ps. 1, 90B-C; Ps. 7, 
105 E; Ps. 14,109B; De Jejunio 2,12 A; Quod Mundanis, 170 Ὁ. 

2. Athletics:— 

— But I think that the strenuous athletes of god, who have 
wrestled valiantly with invisible enemies all their life long, 
after they have escaped the pursuit of their enemies, are 
examined by the Prince of Time, so that if they are found to 
have retained wounds from their struggles, stains, or traces 
of sin, they are held back; but if they are found scatheless and 
spotless, like invincible and free men, they are carried by Christ 
to everlasting peace.”—Ps. 7, 99 B-C. 

-—“Contend fittingly that you may be crowned.”—DeJejunio 2, 12A. 
—“QLet us increase the strength of our souls in order that we 
may snatch victory from the passions through fasting and may 
be crowned with the crown of abstinence.”—De Jejunio 2, 12C-D. 
—“Look to yourself, athlete, lest you transgress some rule of 
athletics. No one is crowned unless he contend according to 
the rules. Take Paul as your model in running and wrestling 
and boxing; and like a good boxer keep the eyes of your soul 
ever on the alert. Protect your vital parts by the address of 
your fists.) Keep a watchful eye on your opponent. Strain 
yourself for the foremost position in the races. Run that you 
may win the prize. Wrestle with your invisible enemies.’— 
Attende Tibiipsi, 20B. 

—“For a brave athlete, I think, once having stripped for the 
stadium of piety, must steadfastly endure the blows of adversa- 
ries in the hope of achieving a glorious crown. For those who 
are accustomed to the labors of the paelestra do not flinch 
from the bitterness of the blows, but grapple with their enemy, 
in their anxiety for the herald’s pronouncement contemning 
their present exertions.”—De Grat. Act., 27C-D. Compare also 
De Jejunio 1, 10B. 

The term “athlete” is applied so often to the martyrs in the 
Christian orators of the time that the term is almost a synonym 
for one who has died for the Faith. 

Examples:— 

—“Job, that invincible athlete’—In Illud Lucae, 43 E;—“the 
wrestler”—In Barlaam, 141C;—*“the crowned athlete”—In Gor- 
dium, 148 ΕἸ. 


THE METAPHOR 105 


—(The Forty Martyrs are speaking.) “As forty we entered this 
stadium, as forty let us be crowned.”—(The stadium in question 
is a frozen stream in which the martyrs are being tortured.) 
In XL Martyres, 154A. Compare also Ps. 1, 93E; Deus non 
est auct., 81K; Advers. Iratos, 88B; In Princip. Proverb., 
106E-107A; In Gordium, 145B; In XL Martyres, 150D. 

3. Metaphors of the hippodrome are neither numerous nor 
striking :— 
In Divites, 55 B—a vain wife applies the goads to empty pleasures. 
In Princip. Proverb. 110 D-—the Book of Proverbs puts a bridle 
on the unjust tongue. 
—“Are you a young man? Strengthen your youth with the 
bridle of baptism.”—-In Sanct. Baptisma, 117C. 
—“Q beloved, I was thinking that while I apply the goad of my 
discourse so frequently, I seem to you harsh”—Quod Mundanis, 
163A. Compare also Hex. 4, 35C; In Sanct. Baptisma, 1180; 
Quod Mundanis, 163D; Ad Adolescentes, 182A. 

4. The Sea:— ! 
—“But let us, arising from the deeps, take refuge on the land. 
For somehow the marvels of creation, engaging us one after 
another, like waves of the sea in continuous procession, have 
submerged my discourse.”—Hex. 7, 698. 
—“Here bringing our discourse to anchor, let us await the 
day for the exposition of the rest.”—Hex. 7, 69D. 
—“lLike the noble Job, be patient for a space beneath adversity. 
Do not avoid the storm nor cast over-board the cargo of virtue 
which you are carrying.”—In Fam. et Siccit., 68D. 
—“In prosperity look for the storms of adversity. Disease will 
come and poverty will come, for the wind does not always rise 
against the stern.”—In Princip. Proverb., 111C. 
—“Hold the rudder as firmly as youcan. Pilot your eyes lest 
sometime a turbulent wave of pleasure wash upon you through 
your eyes. Pilot your ear and your tongue lest some harm be- 
fall them, lest forbidden things be spoken. Look to it lest the 
surges of wrath capsize you, lest fears flood you, lest heavy 
grief sink you. The waves are our passions. If you raise your- 
self above them, you will be a pilot secure of life. But if you do 
not with constant care steer clear of them, like a bark without 
ballast, tossed about by the fortunes of life ever on-coming, you 


4 


106 THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PATRISTIC STUDIES 


will sink in the sea of Sin. Learn, then, how a knowledge of 
pilotry will help you. It is the practice of sailors to look up 
to heaven and thence take guidance for their course; in the 
daytime, from the sun; at night, from the Bear or some other 
of the eternal stars, and under the guidance of these, they always 
estimate correctly. Do you then look towards heaven. Look to 
the sun of justice... For if you never sleep over the tiller, as 
long as you live in this uncertain state of earthly things, you 
will have the aid of the Spirit, who will lead you forward, 
transporting you securely with gentle, peaceful breezes until 
you are brought safely into that |serene and tranquil harbor 
of the will of God.”—In Princip. Proverb., 112 D-113 B. 
—“Beware lest like things befall you and, in sin too great for 
forgiveness, before the harbor of your hope you suffer ship- 
wreck.”—In Sanct. Baptisma, 118 A-B. 
—“Let him (i. 6. the man who clings to earthly things) throw 
overboard the most of his tonnage and, before the boat sinks, 
let him cast overboard the baggage which he needlessly col- 
lected.”— Quod Mundanis, 168 B-C. Compare also Hex. 3, 31C; 
Ps. 1, 90E; Advers. Iratos, 84D; In Princip. Proverb., 111 D; 
In Princip. erat V., 138D; Quod Mundanis, 170A; Ad Adoles- 
centes, 180A. 


FREQUENCY OF METAPHOR IN THE SERMONS. 


(To which is added a conspectus of the most numerous groups 
according to subject-matter.) 

















°o 
ΕΠ φΦ or gi .18]- § 
ΞΊΞ ΞΕ ξ 48} ΑΠΞΠΣΠΞ κι 8. 2 8 
ΞΙΞ Ξ|Ξ Ξ:Ξ)ὥ Ὁ 8 π ξ|8 ἃ δ8,ξ ὃ 
ΞΙ Ὁ 5.545 ἘΦ ΞΙ ἢ 3/5 ole 
8|4 ss 5 Bid] sla 5 
Η͂ [5 e A 
2 
Hex. 1 (530) | 18 1) 1 5 
». 2 (607) | 1817 1 1 1 10 
» 8 (665) [14] 1 1 4 11 
» 4 (893) |16|38 1 1 7 
τ δ᾽ 5710). | 22) ὃ 1/2 4 
» 6 (746) | 24/7 1 13 | 2 
» 7 (425) |14}4/2 1 1 7 
























































THE METAPHOR 107 







































































ο 
Ὡ Ξ : Ξ Ξ Ὄ E 5S E νι ξ 
a ἘΞ Ε ἕξ 6} 3Ξ κ|ξ πα ὃ 3 
gig ia is |e δ ϑιξ εξ 8 = 8 
Ξ [5155 5} EP eieisig) [ῈΕ}8ῈΡ 
Als 5] ΙΞ] lm = 
4 
Hex. 8 (572) |10| 5| | 2 1 Hi a 
ee (507) | 12] 2 11. 1 8 
Ps. 1 (449) [268] 8.4] 2/2! [11 4 14 
ΙΗ (641)[10.1 [1 oie ae 
ΔΎ (872) | 24/1) | 2 1}1 1 
4 28 (636) | 29 4 11 1 2) 12/1), 8 
ae: (418) | 16 | 3 2 iit 2 
» 32 (651) [21}1 | 2) 1 5 
eo 88 (963) | 81 - [1] 4 1 VEE TTS 
» 44 (687) | 29 5 1} a 
» 45 (407) [17] 3) | 4 2/1] 1 
, 48 (682) | 29 | - 1 1 8 
» ὅ9 (242) 4 | 
yok (336) | 11 2 
, 114 (276) | 11 2 a! |1 1 
De Jejunio 1 (475) | 388 2318] 681 1 1 18 
ἔτ ὅν. 8 (330) [89] 4 δ᾽) 6.211 1/4] |1/ 18 
Attende Tibiipsi (480) | 34 [18 112 1 1 5 
De Grat. Act. (459) | 18] 1)2) 1 4 
In Julittam (680) | 13] |2 1 1, 11. ἢ 
In Ilud Lucae (406) [17 31 1 6 1 
In Divites (601) | 19} 1/3 1 1 3/ 8 
In Fam. et Siccit. (584) | 18 | 3/5] 1 1}1 1; ;2/1 B44 
Deus non est auct. (598) | 9 3 1 1 
Advers. Iratos (452) | 23 | 2 3)/4/1/1/1 1 7 
De Invidia (359) | 81.1.9} 1111} |4 1 
In Princip.Proverb. (895) | 98 | 7 | 2)/1)1/38) 8 14 
In Sanct. Baptisma (522) | 87} 8.4) 8,421 8/1; (1/2/5] 1 
In Ebriosos (423) 180] 1.2] 5 1 1 
De Fide (185) | 7 2 1 
In Princip. erat V. (248) | 7 1; 3 1 
In Barlaam ‘ (141) | 14| 82] ὅ 2 1 1 
In Gordium (425) | 28 1 ὃ 1 ΤΥ} 
In XL Martyres (892) | 82 | 1/5/13) 4 1 1 41 
De Humilitate (353) | 7 2 
Quod Mundanis (688) | 41 88] 9,4 88 41) 8 
Ad Adolescentes (627) | 13 | 2 211112 2 
In Mamantem (244) |} 12] 111} 1/1 Dd}; |1)1}1 1 
Contra Sabellianos (444) | 6 2 1 


108 THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PATRISTIC STUDIES 


1069 metaphors in 46 Fourth-century sermons point to a 
frequent but not excessive recurrence to this figure. The 110 
long metaphors and the 51 redundant metaphors indicate a 
greater predilection for the figure than the total of all the 
metaphors indicates, but again not an excessive use of the 
device, as that adjective would be understood by the Second 
Sophistic. The Sophistic manner is seen more in the develop- 
ment of the metaphor than in its frequency. The examples 
given show a well-defined tendency toward an elaborate and 
meticulous correspondence of the subjects of the comparison, 
on rare occasions a bent towards the dramatic, a very great 
fondness for the redundant exposition of the ‘same thought in 
metaphorical variations,® an occasional, but only occasional, 
use of metaphors excessively long. 

One of the noteworthy facts in the above table is the com- 
paritive infrequency of the so-called technical metaphors, i. e. 
those based on war, the stadium, the hippodrome, the sea, We 
have no statistics on the proportionate part these “technical 
figures” play in the sophists. We only know that a large part 
of the sophistic metaphors may be grouped in subject-matter 
under one or another of these four heads. This tells us nothing 
about the relative amount of other metaphors in the sophists. 
But despite this vagueness, this much may be drawn safely from 
the above table—that a large part, in fact most, of St. Basil’s 
metaphors may not be grouped under one or another of these 
four heads. Only about one metaphor in every six may be so 
grouped. Almost equally striking is the infrequency of meta- 
phors based on the hippodrome. To the sophists the hippo- 
drome more than any other source furnishes sophistic metaphors. 
St. Gregory of Nazianzus7 is again a sophist in his wealth of such 
metaphors, St. John Chrysostom$ exhibits some very elaborate 
examples. St. Basil’s use of the hippodrome is never remarkable 
and the instances are surprisingly few. 

The practical use of the metaphor is seen in the not numerous 
but consistent use of personification; the Christian sources, in 
the metaphors based on the curing of souls, on a shepherd and 





6 51 examples of such a character clearly show this fondness. 
7 Guignet, 143. 
8 Ameringer, 61. 


THE METAPHOR 109 


his flock, on spiritual debtors, on wé#w. None of the above 
groups are very numerous and their combined totals are some- 
what less than that of the technical figures. 

A sophistic influence undoubted in manner can be traced 
through St. Basil’s metaphors, but the most sophistic examples 
found do not equal the elaborateness of some of Méridier’s 9 and 
Ameringer’s1° discoveries and do not suggest the occasional 
bad taste of Nyssa and Chrysostom. The more chastened treat- 
ment of Nazianzus at times outstrips the most sophistic efforts 
of Basil.11 His most ambitious examples—In Princip. Proverb. 
112D-113B and Quod Mundanis, 170B—are but further proof 
of a general characteristic so often noted in these pages—of 
a training deeply sophistic breaking through a determined mo- 
deration. 





9 109, 115. 
10 66. 
11 cf. Guignet, 155-156. 


CHAPTER XII 


THE COMPARISON 


The comparison, like the metaphor, is an expression of a 
resemblance perceived by the writer or speaker between two 
objects. It draws largely on the same sources and is subject 
to the same rules. A good comparison may be turned into 
a metaphor, and a good metaphor may be turned into a com- 
parison. Mechanically they differ. A comparison is a meta- 
phor completed by a grammatical form that calls attention 
to the resemblance. In the metaphor this resemblance is im- 
plied. The context must be known before the figure is evident. 
In the comparison the word of comparison, usually the intro- 
ductory word, warns us of the figure. The real strength of 
the metaphor lies in the striking, almost immediate illumination. 
If prolonged, it palls. It ceases to be useful and even orna- 
mental, The comparison may develop its theme either briefly 
or at length. Its illumination may be either immediate or 
deliberate. If prolonged, it too becomes wearisome, but it 
allows a more elaborate development of its theme because of 
the clear-cut, easily grasped mechanics of its make-up. 

In Isocrates’ time the comparison began to assume a noti- 
ceable place in rhetoric, and those conditions in politics and 
literature that subsequently fostered the Isocratic tradition 
maintained the comparison, especially the elaborate comparison, 
in rhetoric. Its poetic kinship, its possibilities for elaborate 
display were not lost upon the sophists of the Empire. So 
striking a development in frequency and manner did the com- 
parison receive in the sophistic schools of the Empire that, 
like metaphor, it merits a special chapter in a study of the 
rhetoric of either the sophists or their pupils. 


THE COMPARISON 111 


All the sophistic comparisons may be divided into two main 
groups; those borrowed from natural phenomena and those 
borrowed from the technical arts. Because of its kinship with 
the metaphor we are not surprised to find that the divisions 
under these main groups include, among others, the same 
sources from which the sophistic metaphors were borrowed; 
i.e. military science, the sea, athletic games, the hippodrome. 
After taking notice of the comparison used as an introduction 
to sermons, we shall pass on to examples of the elaborate 
comparison, the redundant comparison, and then observe its 
use in the several sophistic categories. 

One convention of the sophists was to begin a discourse 

occasionally with an elaborate comparison. The display of 
skill thus afforded was a kind of “try-out” for both speaker 
and auditors. Typical of this convention in the sermons is 
the following :— 
—‘“At the athletic games the spectator himself must join the 
efforts of the contestants. This fact one gathers from the laws 
of the game which prescribe that all have the head uncovered 
when they gather in the stadium. The purpose of this law in 
my opinion is to see to it that each one be not a mere spec- 
tator of the contending athletes but that he be in a measure 
an athlete himself. Thus it is equally necessary that an in- 
vestigator of the great and admirable spectacle of creation, a 
hearer of supreme and ineffable wisdom, bring a personal light 
for the contemplation of the wonders about to be detailed to 
you and that he be an ally with me to the utmost of his 
powers in this struggle wherein he is not so much judge as 
fellow-combatant, for fear lest the discovery of the truth pass 
beyond us and my error turn to the common prejudice.”— 
Hex. 6, 49 Εν, Compare also Hex. 4, 33 A-C; Ps. 14, 107 B; De 
Jejunio 2, 10D; Advers. Iratos, 83 A-B; In Ebriosos, 122D; 
In Gordium, 141 D. 

The structure of the comparison lands itself more easily 
than the metaphor to elaborate development. Basil’s elaborate 
comparisons are far more numerous and more complex than 
his elaborate metaphors. From a great wealth of instances 
gathered from every sermon, random examples will illustrate his 
facility in justifying his frequently far-fetched resemblances. 


112 THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PATRISTIC STUDIES 


—“For just as a potter, after having made with the same 
skill a great number of vessels, has not exhausted his skill 
nor his power; so the Artisan of the Universe, whose creative 
power is not co-extensive with one world, but extends to the 
infinite, through the impulse of his will alone brought the im- 
mensities of the visible world into being.”—Hex. 1, 3C. 
—“He (i.e. God) wishes that we be attached to our neigh- 
bors by the claspings of love, like the tendrils of the vine, 
and that we take our rest on them, so that in our continual 
impulses towards heaven we may imitate those vines which 
raise themselves to the tops of the tallest trees.”—-Hex. 5, 46 A. 
— “For just as a ball, when some one has pushed it and it 
comes upon an incline, is carried downward both because of 
its own form and because of the nature of the ground, not 
stopping until it reaches a level surface, so nature, impelled 
by one divine command, traverses creation with an equal step, 
through birth and destruction, maintaining the successions of 
kinds through resemblance, until it arrives at the end of all 
things.”—Hex. 9, 81 A-B. 

—“Just as the reed is the instrument of writing of the in- 
telligent hand moving it to the expression of things written; 
so also the tongue of the just man, the Holy Spirit moving 
it, writes the words of eternal life upon the hearts of the faith- 
ful.”— Ps. 44, 161 D-E. 

—‘“For just as a bowman directs his arrow at the mark, if 
on neither side of the mean he follows the art of archery; so 
the judge aims at justice, not considering the personality in- 
volved, (for it is not well in passing sentence to know per- 
sonally the one accused) nor acting on any prejudice, but 
laying down just and straightforward decisions.’—In Princip. 
Proverb., 105 D. 

—“Just as excessive brilliance dims the eyes and just as those 
who are startled by a sudden crash are made deaf, so these 
(i.e. drunkards) by their excessive indulgence destroy their 
pleasure.”—In Ebriosos, 126 A. 

—“And just as wicked and avaricious men, whose work and 
purpose is to grow wealthy at other men’s expense but who are 
prevented from using open violence, are accustomed to lie in wait 
for their victims on the highways and if they observe in the 


THE COMPARISON 113 


neighborhood any spot, either cut-off by deep gulleys or shaded 
with thick foliage, they betake themselves there and keep tra- 
vellers from seeing afar off their hiding-places and then suddenly 
rush upon them and thus no traveller can see the meshes of peril 
before he falls into them; so he who has been bitter towards us 
from the beginning and is our enemy, hiding himself behind the 
shadows of this world’s pleasures, which are usually well-adapted 
for concealing the robber and his attacks on the highway of life, 
unexpectedly and of a sudden, throws the meshes of destruction 
about us. Therefore, if we wish to run the road of this life in 
safety to the end and to offer our soul and body to Christ free 
from the wounds of shame, if we wish to receive the crowns 
of victory, we must ever be on the alert, training our eyes on 
everything. We must suspect all pleasing aspects and straight- 
way pass them by and think not of them, not if gold were to 
appear on the highway, scattered before us and ready to be 
taken up by any one desiring it. (There follow five scriptural 
quotations, naming the sources of dangerous pleasure. Then 
St. Basil resumes the comparison proper.) For under all these 
things lurks our common enemy, waiting to see if, enticed by 
appearances, we shall leave the road of righteousness and ap- 
proach his traps. And we ought especially to be wary lest, 
running upon these heedlessly and thinking that pleasure in 
their enjoyment is not harmful, we swallow the hook of guile 
concealed in the first tasting and then partly willingly, partly 
unwillingly, be dragged by them, even without our perceiving 
it, to the dread hospice of the robber-death.”—Quod Mundanis 
163B-164B. The research of the above comparisons, especially 
the last example, the far-fetched metaphors, the appeal to the 
provinces of war and athletics and fishing, the studied antono- 
masia, combine to produce a remarkable exhibition of sophistic 
eloquence. : 

The elaborate comparison is usually met with in examples 
which illustrate other characteristics, but the following places 
may be consulted for elaborateness alone:—Ps. 14, 108 C—the 
farmer praying for rain and the usurer hoping for the poverty 
of his neighbor—; Ps. 14, 112 B—man with the cholera always 
emitting what he has swallowed and promptly eating again, 


and debtors running through one loan and seeking another—; 
8 


114 THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PATRISTIC STUDIES 


Ps, 28, 119D-E—the cedars of Lebanon prominent on a high 
mount and those men who are made prominent through earthly 
works alone—; Ps. 32, 139 A-B—those who write on wax first 
make it smooth, and the heart, before receiving divine rea- 
sonings, necessarily cleared of human—; Ps. 33, 149B—fasti- 
dious diners, whose appetites are sharpened by an actual trial 
of a disdained food, and those who, at first indifferent to the 
word of God, long for it more and more, after one experience 
of its spiritual joy—; Ps. 33, 157A—bones of the body that 
prop up the soft flesh and men strong in the faith propping 
up the weak in the church; De Jejunio 2, 12 B-C—the difference 
between the instruments of war and those of faith, and the 
difference between the food of the soldiers of this world and 
that of the soldiers of Christ. 

Redundancy—the heaping of figures around one theme—is 
not so marked in St. Basil’s comparisons as in his metaphors. 
Most of the examples found were of the two-fold variety and 
therefore not particularly striking. No examples were found in 
the Hexaémeron. 

—“Just as the eagle is called ἅγιος because of its distance 
from the earth; and the sheep, because of its gentleness and 
kindness; and the ram, because of its leadership; and the dove, 
because of its innocence, so the hind is called ἅγιος because - 
of its hostility to what is baneful.”—Ps. 28, 121E. 

—“Just as smoke puts bees to flight and ill smells rout doves,so sin 
drives away the angels guardian of our life.”—Ps. 33, 148C-D. 
—“Play your part like a noble athlete who shows his strength 
and courage not only in buffeting his adversaries but also in 
withstanding the blows inflicted by them in turn; and like a 
pilot, who, prudent and undisturbed because of his deep know- 
ledge of sailing, keeps his mind straight and safe and above 
every peril.”—In Julittam, 37C.—“Angry people go mad like 
dogs, dart like scorpions, bite like snakes.”—-Advers. Iratos, 
83D.—Just as vultures are attracted toward the stinking, 
passing by the sweet fields, and just as flies, passing by clean- 
liness, are attracted towards wounds, so the envious look not 
on the glorious aspects of life, but concentrate upon the 
rotten.”—De Invidia, 95B.—(describing Barlaam in torture) 
“Rejoicing in dangers as if in crowns, pleased with the blows 


THE COMPARISON 115 


as if they were honors, leaping with joy at the harsher tortures 
as if they were prizes more illustrious, embracing the block of 
punishment as if it were a means to safety, thinking the hands 
of the executioner softer than wax, rejoicing in the confines of 
the prison as if in meadows, gladdened by the instruments of 
torture as if by flowers.”—In Barlaam, 140A-B. The extra- 
vagance of the above example is also sophistic in the far-fet- 
ched appeal to aspects of nature. 

For further examples of redundant comparisons compare 
Ps. 1, 91E—the foundations of a house, the keel of a ship, the 
heart of a person are compared to the prooemium of the psalms; 
Ps. 1, 92A—comparison of the inn for the weary traveller, 
wealth for the merchant, harvest for the hard-working farmer 
with promises of the gospel to those fighting spiritual battles; 
Ps. 48, 185B—comparison of the baseness of man to a lust- 
mad horse, the thieving wolf, the knavish fox.; In Julittam, 
41 C-D—comparison of the physician who, instead of curing 
others, becomes ill himself; of the pilot who, instead of guiding 
his ship, himself becomes sea-sick to people who instead of 
giving consolation, themselves mourn. 

Turning from the methods of development that show sophistic 
influence, we may find in the sophistic categories a further in- 
dex of the extent of this influence on his comparisons. 


. THe Sun. 


The sun is not a favorite source of sophistic comparisons for 
St. Basil. The following are typical instances of its infrequent 
occurrence. ᾿ 
—“For just as the sun has arisen but not for bats nor other 
creatures that feed by night, so the light is in its own nature 
radiant, but not all share in its radiance.”—Ps. 33, 147A. 
—“Just as the sun, shining on bodies and variously shared 
by them, is not diminished by those who share it, so the Spirit, 
furnishing its own grace to all, remains undiminished and 
undivided.’—De Fide, 133 B. 

-Ἴ a man strives to examine the sun closely, he will not see 
it. Some such thing I expect my mind to experience, striving 
to make an accurate examination of the words, ‘In the beginning 
was the Word’.”—In Princip. erat V., 134D. 

g* 


116 THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PATRISTIC STUDIES 


THe Stars. 


As a source of comparisons, the stars were found only once 
in the sermons.—“Look to the sun of righteousness and, guided 
by the commandments, as if by the stars shining around, keep 
your eye sleepless.”—In Princip. Proverb., 113 A. 


THE Sea, Rivers, NAvication. 


The sea has a fascination for St. Basil. Beautiful scenes are 
often suggested by his use of this sophistic source. Picturesque 
emphasis is also attained. 

—“And yet our thought, having come in contact with these 
innumerable marvels, has utterly forgotten all proportion and 
we experience the same fortune as they who navigate the seas 
without a fixed point to mark their course and know not how 
much space they have traversed.”—Hex. 7, 690. 

—‘“For just as those who are asleep on boats are carried by 
the wind towards port straightway and, even if the sleepers do 
not perceive it, are being hurried to their journey’s end, so 
also we, while the time of our life is flowing by, are hurried, 
each of us, by a continuous unceasing movement, on an un- 
known course, to our life’s end.”—Ps. 1, 94C. 

—“But just as those who stand upon the shore do not loose 
their own security while they suffer for those who are drown- 
ing, so those who weep over the sins of their neighbors, 
destroy their own contentment not at all.’—De Grat. "Act., 
28C-D. 

—“Just as a transit through a rich land is given to a great 
river by means of many canals, so are you too, if you allow 
your wealth to be split up into countless avenues leading to the 
homes of the poor.”—In Illud Lucae, 48A. 

—“,,.the mind as if a pilot, seated high above the passions 
and mounted on the ship of the flesh.’—In Princip. Proverb., 
111 E. 

—“Qne who has sailed straight in the commerce of the com- 
mandments is like a wealthy merchant who, joyful in the abun- 
dance of his goods while his ship sails with a favoring wind, 
later sails in a sea of terror and his ship is torn to pieces at 
the harbor’s mouth and he is stripped of all his possessions. 
Like such a one is the pious man who, after many labors, has 


THE COMPARISON 117 


acquired a spiritual treasure and looses it all to one assault 
of the devil, drowned in sin, as it were, by an angry hurri- 
cane.’—In Princip. Proverb., 112C. 

Somewhat ludicrous to Western ears is the following ela- 
boration :— 
—“For just as mountain-torrents, as long as winter streams 
flow into them seem full but when the exundation has passed, 
are dry, so the mouths of these drunkards, while the wine forms 
a pool, seem full, but soon are dry and without moisture.”— 
In Ebriosos, 126 D-E. 
—“For just as those on the sea, when they ride between two 
anchors, contemn the tempest, so will you laugh at this wicked 
storm (which has struck the life of man with blasts of infamy 
and which disturbs the faith of many), if in the security of these 
words you keep your soul in harbor.”—In Princip. erat V.,136 A-B. 
—“But the just man (i. 6. Job) like a promontory stood, ac- 
cepting the buffets of the storm and changing into foam the 
force of the waves, and he cried out to the Lord that gracious 
sentence, ‘The Lord has given, the Lord has taken away. As 
the Lord wills it, so let it be’.,—Quod Mundanis, 171C. 

Compare also Hex. 4, 39D-E—comparison of the assembly 
of the church in which Basil is preaching to the ocean; Hex. 4, 
39E—comparison of the voices of men to waves beating on 
the shore; Ps. 33, 149E—comparison of the uncertainties of 
wealth to the uncertainties of the waves whipped by the winds; 
Ps. 61, 198 A—comparison of the flux of wealth to the flow of a 
swift torrent; De Jejunio 1, 3D-E—comparison of a heavily- 
fed body to an over-crowded ship; Attende Tibiipsi, 16 D—com- 
parison of the carriage of thought by speech to transportation 
on a ferry-boat; In Divites, 55 D—comparison of the action of 
a storm on sail-ropes to the results of the captious ways of 
wives upon their husbands; In Princip. erat V., 136 E—com- 
parison of the heart of man to a fountain. 


AGRICULTURE, GARDENING. 


—“Let no one who has passed his time in sin despair of 
himself when he recalls that if husbandry changes the juices 
of plants, the efforts of the soul towards virtue can conquor 
all infirmities.”—Hex. 5, 46E. 


118 THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PATRISTIC STUDIES 


—“As mildew is the disease of grain, so envy is the disease 
of friendship.”—De Invidia, 946. 

—“Just as the virtue proper to the tree is to blossom with 
the season’s fruit and just as the tree bears a decoration of 
leaves that wave around the branches, so preeminently the fruit 
of the soul is truth.”—Ad Adolescentes, 175 B-C. Compare also 
In Illud Lucae, 45 D—the benefits of sown grain for the sower 
are compared to those of alms-giving for the giver; In Fam. 
et Siccit., 69 E—comparison of eyes lying glassy in their sockets 
to fruit frozen in the sheaths of hard-shelled coverings. 


ANIMALS. 


Animals are not a favorite standard of comparison in the 
sermons. 

—“How have not they who give themselves over to empty 
wisdom the eyes of owls. For the sight of the owl, so piercing 
during the night time, is dazzled by the shining sun and the 
intelligence of these men is sharpest in the contemplation of 
vanities, but is blinded in trying to perceive true light.”— 
Hex. 8, 77D. 

—“As a dog follows a shepherd, so wrath follows a reasonable 
man.’—Advers. Iratos, 88 D. | 
—“Why do you shrink from the yoke of baptism like a young 
calf unused to the yoke of the stable?”—In Sanct. Baptisma, 
114D. 

—“Just as the polypod, they say, adapts its coat to the color 
of the surrounding earth, so the popularity-seeker tunes his 
opinions to the thought of those around him.”—Ad Adoles- 
centes, 184A. 

Compare also Hex. 9, 87E—enraged Jews are compared 
to animals vainly raging in their cages; Ps. 33, 155H—com- 
parison of those hurled to earth by sin to crawling serpents; 
Ps, 48, 186 B—comparison of a fallen man snatched away by 
the devil to a sheep without a shepherd; De Invidia, 910— 
comparison of envy destroying the soul to vipers who tear 
their mother on being born; In Princip. Proverb., 103 K— 
comparison of a deceiving hypocrite to a deceitful fox, hares, 
and dogs. 


THE COMPARISON 119 


FIRE. 

Figures based on fire are very few in the sermons despite 
the obvious opportunity for rhetorical pyrotechnics that would 
thus be afforded. This category is almost negligible in the 
sermons. 

—*“Pain tries the soul as fire does gold.”—In Fam. et Siccit., 
67E. Compare Ps. 7, 105D—comparison of fire created for 
burning wood to arrows of God created for souls spiritually 
burning. 

CLoups. 

The clouds form another insignificant category in the sermons. 
—“Just as a cloud becomes a shower of rain, so the vapor, 
gathering (about the eye), becomes a tear.”—De Grat. Act., 
29 D-E. : : 
—“Sadness, like a heavy cloud, enveloped everything.”—In 


Gordium, 144A. 
War. 


Metaphors drawn from war are more numerous in the ser- 
mons than comparisons derived from that source. Not an 
example was found in the Hexaémeron. The examples are 
mostly commonplace. 

—“Just as men thrown about the walls of a city insure pro- 
tection on every side against the enemy, so the angel fortifies 
your soul in front and in the rear, and on neither side leaves 
it unguarded.”—Ps. 33, 148 E. 

—“For just as a general equipped with a strong force of 
soldiers is always ready to go to the aid of any part of his 
army hard-pressed, so God is our helper. He is the ally of 
any one fighting against the cunning of the devil, dispatching 
ministering spirits for the security of those needing them.’— 
Ps. 45, 171 D-E. 

—“Just as in a battle to join one portion of the line makes 
another portion weaker, so a man who allies himself with the 
flesh destroys the spirit, and he who crosses over to the spirit 
reduces the flesh to servitude.’—De Jejunio 1, 8B. 

—“For just as arrows hurled with great force are turned back 
upon the thrower when they hit a hard substance, so the mo- 
tions of jealousy, in no wise hurting the object of jealousy, 
become plagues to the envious.”—De Invidia, 94D. 


120 THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PATRISTIC STUDIES 


—“Our soul’s wrath is fit and useful for many works of virtue, 
when, like a soldier, having deposited its arms with its com- 
mander, it brings aid to whatsoever it is commanded, and is 
an ally to reason against sin.”—Advers. Iratos, 880. 

Compare also Ps. 7, 104C—a psalmist is compared to a 
warrior seeking help; Ps. 28, 116C—the Lord and the devil 
alternately victorious compared to two generals alternately 
victors; Ps. 45, 170 D—-a troubled soul rushing to God for con- 
solation compared to a man rushing to a high-walled place for 
safety; Advers. Iratos, 85C—insults: are compared to falling 
arrows; In Princip. Proverb., 108C—words of scripture likened 
to armor for life’s struggles; In Ebriosos, 128 C—drunken youths 
are likened to a man wounded in war. 


Mousicat INSTRUMENTS. 


Scarcely more fruitful than fire, animals, and clouds as a source 
of comparisons are musical instruments. In Hex. 9, 86D the 
sting of a scorpion is likened to that of a hollow flute, and 
in Ps. 29, 130E occurs:—“The flute is a musical instrument 
employing wind as its co-worker in the production of melody. 
Wherefore I think that every holy prophet may be figuratively 
styled a flute, because of the movement of the Holy Spirit 
within him.”—This amazing comparison depends upon a pun 
contained in the double meaning of πνεύματι. As such it is an 
excellent example of sophistic extravagance despite biblical 
parallels. 

PAINTING AND SCULPTURE. 


Painting and Sculpture are a category dear to the sophists. 
Six examples were found in the sermons.—‘And somehow we 
seem to resemble painters. For they, whenever they copy one 
painting from another, probably fall far short of the original 
and, since we did not see the events which we are about to 
narrate, there is not a little danger lest we fall short of the 
truth.”—In Gordium, 143. B.—“He who conforms by his actions 
to the philosophy that in other men exists in words only, alone 1s 
wise. Other men are truly gliding shadows. And this to me 
seems somewhat as if a painter had represented his subject 
_ as a marvel of manly beauty and he then proved to be in rea- 
lity what the artist had painted him on the canvas.”—Ad 


THE COMPARISON 121 


Adolescentes, 178B-C.—*And Milo was not wrenched from 
his anointed shield but stood his ground no less valiantly than 
statues mortised in lead.”—Ad Adolescentes, 1808. Compare 
also De Invidia, 95C—envious people and their outlook on life 
are compared to wretched painters, who, from the distorted 
aspects of nature, gather the forms for their pictures; In 
XL Martyres, 149D—Basil’s manner of describing the mar- 
tyrdom of the Forty is compared to the tale told by a picture; 
Ad Adolescentes, 179 A—Socrates, in writing a sentence on 
the forehead of the man who is buffetting him, is likened to 
an artist putting an inscription on a statue. Although few in 
number, the unjustified resemblances above invoked reveal a 
significant. trace of sophistic rhetoric. 


THe Drama. 


The drama contributes to four of St. Basil’s comparisons. 

—“An actor is one who assumes in the theater a personality 
differing from his own: if he is a slave, oft-times taking the 
part of the master; if a private citizen, assuming the role of 
the king. And so in this life as on the stage, most men play 
the actor, bearing one sort of standards in their hearts and 
exhibiting another sort to their fellows.”—De Jejunio 1, 2D. 
—“And just as peculiar are the conventions and trappings of 
tragedy wherewith men invest the theater, so you think that 
mourning too has a proper mode.”—De Grat. Act., 31A. 
—‘“The angry man shows his wrath in his altered appearance, 
changing his customary demeanor like an actor on the stage.”— 
Advers. Iratos, 846. 
—“For to praise virtue in the assembly and to stretch out 
long orations about her, but in private life to prefer indul- 
gence to self-denial and gainfulness to justice, I would liken 
to those who enact dramas on the stage; who often enter as 
kings and rulers, although they are neither kings nor rulers 
nor perhaps free men even.”—Ad Adolescentes, 178C. 


ATHLETICS. 
Again from the province of athletics St. Basil has no com- 
parisons in the Hexaémeron and very few examples elsewhere. 
Of their sophistic quality, however, there can be no doubt. 


122 THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PATRISTIC STUDIES 


—“No boxer so eagerly avoids the blows of his opponent as 
the debtor avoids meeting his creditor.”—Ps. 14, 111C0-D. 
—“For in reality, afflictions like certain kinds of athletic nourish- 
ment and exercises, are for those well-prepared and instructed, 
and they lead the athlete toward ancestral glory.”—Ps. 33, 143 E 
to 144A. 

—“He who says that tribulation does not befit a just man says 
nothing else than that an antagonist is not a proper object for 
an athlete.”—Ps, 33, 156 A-B. | 
—“The leaders of this age... were disturbed at the fortitude 
of Christ, which he displayed in his struggle on the cross 
against him who has command over death. For stripped like a 
noble athlete, he over-came the magistracies and authorities.”— 
Ps. 45, 172 E. 

—“Perceiving himself, like an athlete, sufficiently excercised and 
anointed for the contest by fastings, vigils, prayers, continucus 
and unceasing meditations on the oracles of the Holy Spirit, 
he waited for that day when the whole city, about to celebrate 
the feast of the war-god and witness chariot-races, gathered in 
the theater.”—In Gordium, 144D-E. 2 

—“Just as those in the stadium who are approaching for the 
contest proclaim their names and forthwith advance to the 
place of conflict, so too these, casting aside the names assig- 
ned to them from their nativity, each named himself after the 
name of the our common savior.”—In XL Martyres, 151A. 

Compare also Ps. 29, 125D-E—God lifting up a sinner is 
likened to a man saying a wrestler about to fall; De Grat. 
Act., 27C—a veteran athlete closing bravely with his anta- 
gonist and a zealous Christian cheerfully enduring hardships 
are compared. | 

CuHaRioT RACES. 

Chariot races are almost negligible as a source of com- 
parisons in St. Basil’s sermons. In Ad Adolescentes, 182D a 
man given over to his pleasures is likened to a charioteer 
dragged off by his unrestrained horses. This was the only 
figure found bearing directly on the subject of chariot races. 
That so popular a category receives such scant treatment 
from St. Basil is remarkable. 

Beyond the sophistic categories there are other groups of 


THE COMPARISON 123 


comparisons numerous enough to call for some attention. Most 
of what follows is probably to be traced to Christian in- 
fluences. 
MEDICINE AND DiszaszE. 

A small number of examples were found outside the Hexaé- 
meron. 
—*Just as if a physician coming to those who are ill, instead 
of restoring them to health, should take away the feeble 
traces of their strength, so you too (i. e. the usurer) would 
make the mishaps of the wretched an occasion of gain.”— 
Ps. 14, 108 B-C. 
—“Just as a physician is a benefactor, even if he creates pains 
or labors in his patient, (for he is fighting the disease and not 
the patient) so God is good, achieving the safety of all of us 
through particular punishments.”—Deus non est auct., 74D. 
—“Just as in the precepts of physicians, whenever they are 
formulated accurately and in accordance with the rules of the 
art, their utility is demonstrated through experience, so in 
spiritual exhortations, when the warnings have results bearing 
testimony to their truth, then their wisdom and usefulness for 
correcting and perfecting the lives of the faithful are revealed.” — 
Advers. Iratos, 83 A-B. 
—“Perhaps just as in pestilential diseases the guardians of 
bodies fortify those who are well with certain preventatives 
but do not place their hands on those overcome by the disease, 
so this sermon will be useful for some of you as a safeguard 
and antidote for the spiritually sound, but not a relief for 
those spiritually sick.”—-In Ebriosos, 124A-B. Compare also 
Ps. 32, 135A—God’s attitude toward sinners is compared to 
_ @ physician trying to reduce a patient’s swelling by gentle 
treatments and finally applying the knife; Deus non est auct., 
80E—habits begun in evil generating evil in our souls are 
compared to breath gradually inhaled producing a lurking 
disease; In Ebriosos, 126C-D—comparison of drunkards to 
those suffering from phrenitis. 


HIGHWAYS. 


—*We are forgetful like travellers who, unmindful of some 
important object, are obliged, though far on their journey, to 


124 THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PATRISTIC STUDIES 


retrace their steps, punished for their negligence by the labor 
of the return.”(St. Basil has forgotten part of his theme) — Hex. 8, 
72A. Compare also In Julittam, 38D-E—the goal of married 
life is compared to the goal of a journey; Quod Mundanis, 
164B-C—the efforts of Christians on the road of this life are 
compared to travellers girding themselves for the journey and 
reducing their baggage as much as possible. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


—“Just as one who knows not a town is taken by the hand 
and led through it, thus I am going to lead you, as strangers, 
through the mysterious wonders of this great city of the uni- 
verse.” —Hex. 6, 50B. 

—“For just as the bodily vestment is woven of warp and weft, 
so if good deeds follow exhortations, a most reverent garment 
is woven for the soul of him whose life is filled with virtuous 
words and deeds.”—Ps. 44, 168D-E. 

—“For just as in the case of our bodily eyes great distances 
cloud the comprehension of those objects that fall within the 
eye’s scope, but the approach of the observers makes clear 
the recognition of the objects of observation, so in the mind’s 
contemplation, he who does not join himself through good works 
to God nor approach Him, cannot perceive His works with the 
pure eyes of the intellect.”—Ps. 45, 175A. 

—“For just as a shadow follows the body, so does sin follow 
the soul.”—In Divites, 58C. 

—“DLet the passions be ashamed before your reason, even 
as mischievous boys before venerable men.”—Advers. Iratos, 
88 B. 

—Just as small boys who are negligent in their studies be- 
come more attentive after they have been flogged by their 
teacher, and just as they do not hear the instruction before the 
flogging but after it receive and remember instruction as if their 
ears had been opened, so those who neglect divine doctrine 
also spurn divine precepts.”—In Princip. Proverb., 101 D-E. 


FREQUENCY OF COMPARISON IN THE SERMONS 


(to which is added a classification according to subject- 
matter of the categories most frequently represented). 


THE COMPARISON 125 
















































































8 n 
ARE Hel tts 
8/8 Ξ) 4) lel [elslalgisieiz 
eel Slal2lalialSlolsle 8 || 5.5 ala! « 
ἸΠΒΕΉΉΗ 
ἘΠ | gay “ὁ "ἢ 
Dia 1.5 =} 
a a aes 
Hex. 1 (580) | 8| 2 Vos 1 
ie (507) | 6 1 
ee (565) | 8| 1 1 
fey (393) | 4 4 2. 1 
εὐ ἢ (570) | 9| 3 1.4 
a (746) | 7] 4 | 1 1 
Bo (425) | 8] 8. |1] | 51/2 
ἜΧΕ (572) | 8| 5 4 1 
Seite (507) | 8 8 8. | 4 1 
Ps. 1 (449) | 4) ὅ 3 1) ῬῊ 1 
ΣΎΝ (641) | 8| 4 18 2 
,? 44 (372) [10] 9 7 2] |1 
» 28 (636) | 5| 41 1/1} 2 1 
» 29 (418) | 1) 6 1}1/1 1 1 
» Ba (651) | 9| 8 1) |2 1 1 
» 90 (963) |15|11) 1) 2 1 .4 1 3 L 
» 44 (687) 4) 8 1 
» 45 (407) | 5] 4 1 5 1 
phe (682) [4 |1 4 
» ὅ9 (242) | 1) 2 
ἜΘΗ, τ (336) | 5| 11 21 1 
» 114 (276) | 1) 1 1 1 
De Jejunio 1 (475) 16 5 BP 1 2y1 1 1 
πο πὰ (880) 10] 8 1 4 2 
Attende Tibiipsi (480) 12 4 3} | 4 ee ὅν 
De Grat. Act. (459) |15) 6 2) 1 ἘΠ 11 
In Julittam (580) | 2) 5|2 1 1 4 ἃ Μὰ § 1 
In Illud Lucae (406) | ὅ 5 41 2 1 
In Divites (601) | 9} 3) 1 8 1 
In Fam. et Siccit. (584) [19] 41 818 1 1 
Deus non est auct. (598) | 5) 5 1; {1 1 4 
Advers. Iratos (462) 27 5) 1 6} [82] 14 1 2 
De Invidia (359) 1121 4} |2/1| |2] |1 1 
InPrincip.Proverb. (895) 28) 8 114 2 1 1 
In Sanct. Baptisma (522) | 4) 7 2) |8 1 
In Ebriosos (423) 119 8 8} 1) 4 1 2 
De Fide (185) | 5]. 2) [1] | 1) [11 
In Princip. erat V. (248) ὅ 4 |1| | 2/2 2 2 
In Barlaam (141) | 4 1 


. 126 THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PATRISTIC STUDIES 

































































8 Ὡ 
Ξ Ε : 
Bale 8.5 Εἰ, 5 δ 218 
ala| = τ Ἐ͵ΞῚ -ς 3 }ς, ΦΊα]9] 2,5] κα 
ΞΙΞΙΘ15|ξ8 Ξ ἜΠΕΙ ΚΠ ΞΚΝΝ isle 
ὃ δ)ς ὁ ἃ ὁ ΕΞ δ Ε ΞΕ ΕΞ ΞΞ 5 
ἘΠΕ < gis} “58 
ΞΘ 5 Ὧ 
ΡΑ } 
In Gordium (425) |12)3|) [1 3} 1 1/1 i 
In XL Martyres (892) [11|2 J 1 4 1 1 
De Humilitate (353) | 7 1 
Quod Mundanis (633) | 9/5 4} /1/1 1 1 1/3 
Ad Adolescentes (627) 28,62 ὅ . 8516 1 3)1)1)1 εἰ 
In Mamantem (244) | 2 1 1 
Contra Sabellianos (444) | 8 


























On the three counts of abundance, variety, and elaborateness 
St. Basil reveals his sophistic training. While 582 examples 
constitute a moderate use of the figure, this conclusion is chan- 
ged somewhat by the facts that the distribution of the com- 
parisons is very uneven, as a glance at the table shows, and 
that the long, elaborate comparisons are almost one-third of the 
total. The prominence of the long comparison is not surprising 
in view of the untrammeled development which the figure allows. 
The insignificant number of redundant comparisons is an un- 
looked-for result. This very sophistic trait is less pronounced 
here than in his use of the metaphor. St. Basil is more emphati- - 
cally sophistic in the variety of his figures. While not all nor 
nearly all of his comparisons fall under the conventional cate- 
gories, a majority of them do (about three-fifths). In any case 
St. Basil’s themes are not taken from a great variety of sub- 
jects. In both of these facts he resembles, only to a lesser 
degree, the sophists and his Christian contemporaries. It is 
in the elaboration of his comparisons that St. Basil comes 
closest to the sophists. The studied correspondence of details; 
the frequently unjustified resemblances; the pictures of beauti- 
ful or stirring scenes included or suggested by the comparisons, 
particularly those based on the sea; the comparison used as an 
introduction to sermons—some of these are evident in every 
type of sermon and in almost every theme that invoked the figure. 

But not even so may St. Basil be called excessive in his use 
of the figure. The Hexaémeron exhibits a great scarcity of 


THE COMPARISON 127 


comparisons Clearly sophistic. The homilies on the psalms are 
more prolific, but 65 examples are not many in so ample a 
- space of text. Two-thirds of the sophistic comparisons are to 
be found in the last 24 homilies. In many sermons, therefore, 
St. Basil is rather indifferent to the conventional forms. More- 
over, unlike Gregory of Nyssa 1, Gregory of Nazianzus,? or John 
Chrysostom 8 St. Basil’s comparisons, so far as I have observed, 
rarely exist entirely for themselves. They may be developed to 
unnecessary lengths; they may be far-fetched, bizarre, puerile; 
the resemblance asserted may be entirely unwarranted, the 
element of display may be only too obvious, but behind even 
the most studied and unjustified of them, the didactic purpose 
is evident. The love of display does not obscure the longing 
to instruct forcefully and picturesquely. A thorough sophist in 
his materials and in his use of them, St. Basil turns his pagan 
resources to Christian purposes. This purpose may be discerned 
even in his most astonishing comparisons. His sophistic training 
had been too thorough for him to perceive clearly the boundaries 
of propriety and it confined him too closely to its deeply groo- 
ved conventions for him to seek elsewhere often the illumination 
necessary for presenting a theme. But not even this close re- 
lationship leads him into that consistent extravagance that is 
summed up in the word “excessive”. 





1 Méridier, 188. 
2 Guignet, 186. . 
3 Ameringer 85, 


CHAPTER XIII 
ECPHRASIS! 


In many metaphors and comparisons presented in the pre- 
ceding chapters, the very categories to which they belong sug- 
gest, however remotely, a picture. War, the sea, the race- 
course, the highway, the arts, all contain materials capable 
of graphic development. In the more ambitious attempts of 
Basil, especially in his figures drawn from the sea, a picture 
is presented to the mind—the lofty promontory turning the 
anger of the sea into whitest foam, the endless succession of 
waves sweeping over the beach, the struggle of a ship in a 
storm. The vividness, the studied amassing of details, which 
the sophistic training fostered in metaphors and comparisons, 
inevitably produced graphic descriptions in orators keenly re- 
sponsive to pagan standards. This love for the picturesque 
which the later rhetoric carried to such extremes was not 
satisfied by even so untrammeled a figure as the sophistic 
comparison. Accordingly it developed a new device, described 
at length in the rhetoricians and receiving its name from them.? 
The ecphrasis aimed to portray a proper object in such ela- 
borate and forceful detail that a vivid picture resulted in the 
minds of the audience. Such a picture might have little to 
do with the development of the subject under discussion, for 
the audiences of the Fourth Century loved ecphrasis for its 
own sake. A sophist, therefore, on a very thin pretense, fre- 
quently turned aside from the main current of his theme to 
paint a word-picture drawn from some one of the categories 
established for the device by convention. These included various 





1 Selections from the Hexaémeron in this chapter are taken from 


Jackson’s translation. 
2 cf. Rhetores Graeci III, 491-3. 


ECPHRASIS 129 


aspects of nature as seen in the sea, mountains, meadows, caves, 
seasons, birds, animals, distant prospects, rivers, vineyards, the 
human body; various works of art such as paintings, monuments, 
temples, statues, gardens, feasts. Almost all of these categories 
are found in one or another of the Fathers of the Fourth Cen- 
tury. But in St. Gregory of Nazianzus and in St. John Chry- 
sostom and, to a less extent, in St. Gregory of Nyssa the pro- 
vince of ecphrasis is enlarged. Like much else in the pagan 
heritage, it becomes ancillary to Christian projects. Biblical 
scenes, the sufferings of the martyrs, the grandeur of creation, 
descriptions of churches—objects whose forceful presentation 
calls forth feelings of reverence and pious enthusiasm—are 
added to the well-worn themes of paganism. 

St. Basil acknowledges the utility of the ecphrasis in the 
introductory sentences of his panegyric on the Forty Martyrs.‘ 
“Come let us recall thus publicly the deeds of these men and 
confer the benefits to be derived from them on those here 
present by describing their courageous exploits, as if in a 
picture. Orators and painters describe great deeds of war; 
the one group setting them forth in words, the other depicting 
them on canvasses, and both groups incite many men to 
courage. For what the word of narrative gives us through 
the ear, the silent painting tells us through imitation. Thus 
let us recall to the audience the prowess of these men and in 
causing their deeds to pass before the eyes of the spectators, 
so to speak, let us move the nobler souls, those more akin to 
the martyrs, to emulation.” This utility we expect to find 
illustrated frequently in St. Basil. What is the manner of his 
ecphrasis and what proportion do the edifying or instructive 
ecphrases of Christianity bear to those peculiarly pagan? 


DESCRIPTIONS OF PERSONS. 


The sophists delighted in ecphrases of physical beauty, es- 
pecially of young men and young women carried off by death. 
The details of such descriptions are always the same. The 
person described is merely an occasion for indulging in some 





3 cf. Delahaye, 214; Méridier, 141; Guignet, 189; Ameringer, 86-87. 
4 149D—I150A. 
9 


130 THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PATRISTIC STUDIES 


readily recognized commonplaces, extravagant and full of false 
pathos. Ecphrases of persons are relatively rare in the Fathers.® 
Earthly beauty thus idealized is not in harmony with Christian 
thought. The pages of Basil’s sermons yield no examples re- 
vealing the genuine sophistic spirit. The ecphrasis of St. Gor- 
dius, as he burst in upon the amphitheater, and of a human 
body suffering from the famine in Cappadocia are his only 
descriptions of persons, and the latter is a type rather than 
an individual. Both descriptions are ugly. Neither approaches 
remotely the true sophistic manner. - 

—“Famine drys up the natural moisture, it chills the natural 
heat, it reduces the body’s bulk. It wears away its strength. 
The flesh is stretched over the bones like a spider’s web. The 
color is gone. The red is gone, since the blood has wasted 
away. The white does not remain, since the surface of the 
body is blackened in its thinness. Livid is the body, its pallor 
and blackness commingled from disease. The knees no longer 
carry, but are themselves dragged along and with difficulty. 
The voice is thin and feeble; the eyes are glassy in their 
sockets, to no purpose stored up in their cases like fruits frozen 
in their skins.”—In Fam. et Siccit., 69 D-K. 

—‘“Straightway the theater turned upon this unlooked—for 
spectacle: a man savage in appearance; his head squalid through 
his prolonged sojourn in the mountains; his beard long; his 
clothing slovenly; his whole body become a skeleton. He car- 
ried a staff and was equipped with a pouch. To all these 
parts there clung a spirituality, illuminating his person from 
an unseen source.”—In Gordium, 145 B-C. 


THe Sma. 


The sea, which played so prominently and vividly in St. Basil’s 
metaphors and comparisons, is also represented in a few ec- 
phrases and suggestions of that device. The first of the fol- 
lowing is a mere suggestion. 

—“Thus we often see the furious sea raising mighty waves to 
heaven, and, when once it has touched the shore, break its 
impetuosity in foam and retire.’”— Hex. 4, 35B. A poetic 





5 Delahaye, 214. 


ECPHRASIS 1 l 


quality characterizes the following ecphrasis in the same 
sermon. 

—“A fair sight is the sea, all bright in a settled calm; fair 
too, when ruffled by a light breeze of wind, its surface shows 
tints of purple and azure,—when, instead of lashing with violence 
the neighboring shores, it seems to kiss them with peaceful 
caresses.” —Hex. 4,38 D-E. In the following argumentative pas- 
sage is a brief but vivid picture.—“If, from the top of a com- 
manding rock looking over the wide sea, you cast your eyes over 
the vast expanse, how big the greatest islands appear to you? 
How large did one of those barks of great tonnage, which un- 
furl their white sails to the blue sea, appear to you?”—Hex. 
6,59C. A brief suggestion of the sea’s changing moods is 
held out by the following parenthesis—“For you behold the 
sea, now calm and still, after a space stirred up by violent 
winds, and even while it rages and tosses about, a deep calm 
quickly spreads over it.”—In Princip. Proverb.,111B. These 
are the utmost that the sermons of Basil yield in descriptions 
of the sea. The best example is very brief, but enough is 
revealed in the above quotations to show Basil’s graphic skill, 
to give a hint of what might have been if he had chosen to 
indulge his known predilection for maritime scenery. 


W ar. 


The category of war gives one brief hint of ecphrasis:— 
“Imagine, I pray you, a city engaged by besieging enemies. 
Many nations are now investing her, and kings who divide by 
lot the sceptres of nations. Then a general, invincible in 
resources, suddenly appears bearing aid to this city. He breaks 
up the siege. He scatters the assembly of the nations. He 
puts the kings to flight by merely crying out on them with all 
his might. He terrifies their hearts by the strength of his 
voice. What confusion does he certainly stir up, with the 
nations pursued and the kings in headlong flight? What an 
unceasing noise and uproar rolls up the disorder of their 
retreat? Are not all places choked up with those who 
. flee through fear? Even to the cities and villages, which on 
every side receive them, the commotion spreads.”—Ps. 45, 


174 C-D. 
ΠΩ 


132 THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PATRISTIC STUDIES 


Various Aspects oF NATURE AND THE UNIVERSE. 


A touch of ecphrasis is seen in the following sweeping view 
of creation:—“Shall we not rather stand around the vast and 
varied workshop of divine creation and, carried back in mind 
to the times of old, shall we not view all the order of creation? 
Heaven poised like a dome, to quote the words of the prophet; 
earth, this immense mass which rests upon itself, and the air 
around it, of a soft and fluid nature, a true and continual 
nourishment for all who breathe it, of such tenuity that it 
yields and opens at the least movement of the body, opposing 
no resistance to our motions, while, in a moment, it streams 
‘back to its place behind those who cleave it; water, finally 
that supplies drink for man or may be designed for other 
needs, and the marvellous gathering together of it into definite 
places which have been assigned to it: such is the spectacle 
which the words just read will show you.”—Hex. 4, 33 C-D.— 
‘Here was an opportunity for a gorgeous ecphrasis, wherein 
sophistic display and Christian reverence for the handiwork 
of God could blend readily. St. Basil gives us only a sketch. 
A like splendid prospect merely outlined by St. Basil is his 
brief description of the concourse of heaven at the conclusion 
of In Sanct. Baptisma, 122 C:—“There the unnumbered host 
of the angels, the assemblies of the first-born, the thrones of 
the apostles, the seats of the prophets, the sceptres of the 
patriarchs, the crowns of the martyrs, the praises of the just.” 

A nearer approach to the sophistic ecphrasis is the brief 
and vivid description of the earth’s first harvest before the 
Fall of Man, Hex. 5, 44 C-D:—“In a moment earth began by 
germination to obey the laws of the creator, completed every 
stage of growth, and brought germs to perfection. The mea- 
dows were covered with deep grass, the fertile plains quivered 
with harvests and the movement of the corn was like the 
waving of the sea. Every plant, every herb, the smallest shrub, 
the least vegetable, arose from the earth in all its luxuriance.” 
—Less effective but equally capable of sophistic treatment 18 
the account of the growth of fruit at the words of the Creator. 
“Immediately the tops of the mountains were covered with 
foliage; paradises were artfully laid out, and an infinitude of 


ECPHRASIS . 133 


plants embellished the banks of the rivers. Some were for 
the adornment of man’s table; some to nourish animals with 
their fruits and their leaves; some to provide medical help by 
giving us their sap, their juice, their chips, their bark, or fruit.” 
—Hex. 5,48E. Still another index of St. Basil’s possibilities 
with the same theme is the following brief outline of natural 
beauties:— 

—“For the proper and natural adornment of the earth is its 
completion: corn waving in the valleys—meadows green with 
grass and rich with many—coloured flowers—fertile glades and 
hill-tops shaded by forests.”—Hex. 2,15B. Of similar themes, 
whose possibilities St. Basil seems to appreciate, but leaves un- 
developed, may be mentioned: Hex. 2, 19 A—of light as it first. 
flashed through the universe; Hex. 3, 27 E-28 B—the rivers of 
the earth; Hex. 5, 44 E-45 A—the first development of flowers, 
trees, plants; Hex. 6, 50 B—stars of the night and light by day; 
Hex. 6, 50E—the sun; Hex. 9,82E—oxen in their stalls; De 
Fide 131 C-E—grand prospect of the earth. 

The foregoing exhaust the categories of ecphrasis purely 
pagan. St. Basil shows an indifference to them that is remark- 
able even for one of his restrained nature. Of aspects of 
nature favored by the sophists such as caves, seasons, birds, 
animals, rivers, vineyards; of works of arts such as paintings, 
monuments, temples, statues, gardens, we are given not a taste, 
although many of the first group lay directly in the path of 
his sermon’s development and any of the second group could 
readily have been incorporated in that loose arrangement of 
subject-matter permitted in the conventions of Second Sophistic 
rhetoric. In the sophistic categories used by him, how frequently 
I have mentioned sketches and hints rather than ecphrasis 
proper! When we consider the unlimited opportunities for the 
device offered by the Hexaémeron’s theme, alike from the stand- 
point of sophistic love of grand prospects and that of the 
Christian’s admiration for the story of the Creation, St. Basil’s 
reticence stands out uniquely among his contemporaries. The 
ecphrases and hints of ecphrasis found in the above examples 





6 Méridier, 142-144; 147-150; Guignet, 188-191; 192-193; 195-196; Ame- 
ringer, 87-91; 94-96. 


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testify unmistakably to descriptive powers of a high order. 
That St. Basil did not employ them amid such rich opportu- 
nities further re-inforces that characteristic of restraint which 
this study has thus far found to be the chief trait of his St. Basil’s 
rhetoric. 

Turning to fields not strictly pagan, we strike a richer vein. 
The examples found here roughly divide into descriptions of 
victims of vice, descriptions of repugnance or terror, and the 
struggles of the martyrs. All have to do with the office of 
preaching and St. Basil acknowledges the efficacy of vivid por- 
trayals7 as a stimulus to the emulation of noble deeds. How 
far does the sophistic manner contribute to such vividness in 
his sermons? 


VICTIMS OF VICE. 


Two men are thus described in a passage devoted to the 
exposition of the uncertainties of material prosperity,§ in Hex. 
5, 41 D-42 A.—“Truly the rapid flow of life, the short grati- 
fication and pleasure that an instant of happiness gives a 
man, all wonderfully suit the comparison of the prophet. To- 
day he is vigorous in body, fattened by luxury, and in the 
prime of life, with complexion fair like the flowers, strong and 
powerful and of irresistable energy; to-morrow and he will be 
an object of pity, withered by age or exhausted by sickness. 
Another shines in all the splendor of a brilliant fortune, and 
around him are a multitude of flatterers, an escort of false 
friends on the track of his good graces; a crowd of kinsfolk, 
but no true kin; a swarm of servants who crowd after him 
to provide for his food and for all his needs; and in his 
comings and goings this innumerable suite, which he drags 
after him, excites the envy of all whom he meets. To fortune 
may be added power in the state, honours bestowed by the 
imperial throne, the government of a province, or the command 
of armies; a herald who precedes him is crying in a loud 
voice; lictors right and left also fill his subjects with awe, 
blows, confiscations, banishments, imprisonments, and all the 





7 cf. p. 145 above. 
8 The first description bears traces of the ecphrasis of person. It is 
included here because of its didactic purpose. 


ECPHRASIS 135 


means by which he strikes intolerable terror into all whom he 
has to rule. And what then? One night, a fever, a pleurisy, 
an inflammation of the lungs, snatches away this man from 
the midst of men, stripped in a moment of all his stage ac- 
cessories, and all this, his glory, is proved a mere dream.”— 
A gambling den is thus sketched for the audience in Hex. 8, 
79C-D.—*“If I let you go and if I dismiss this assembly, some 
will run to the dice, where they will find bad language, sad 
quarrels, and the. pangs of avarice. There stands the devil, in- 
flaming the fury of the players with the dotted bones; trans- 
porting the same sums of money from one side of the table to 
the other; now exalting one with victory and throwing the 
other into despair; now swelling the first with boasting and 
covering his rival with confusion.’ The picture is effective but 
is more a flash-light—a theme suggested, but not executed. 
The appearance of a man in a revengeful rage is thus por- 
trayed in Advers. Iratos, 84C-E.—For in the hearts of those 
longing for revenge the blood boils about as if stirred up and 
made to splutter by a violent fire. Wrath is seen in the altered 
appearance of the blushing countenance, the accustomed cast 
so familiar to all changing like the face of an actor. The eyes 
lose their natural and better-known expression. Their glance 
is frenzied and they flash fire. The teeth are whetted in the 
manner of swine closing for a struggle. The face is livid and 
blood-red; the body is swollen, the veins burst from the spirit 
of the internal tempest. The voice is harsh and strained to the 
uttermost. The speech is inarticulate, tumbling out rashly, 
coming forth without sequence, without order, unintelligibly. 
But when this wrath has been aroused to a desperate pass by 
torments that resemble a flame ‘feeding on an abundance of 
wood, then, you may behold sights neither to be told in words 
nor to be borne in the doing: hands raised against one’s neigh- 
bor and brought on all parts of the body; feet kicking the 
vital parts unsparingly; in short whatever is in sight becomes 
a weapon for insane rage”.—In De Jejunio 1, 9C the angry 
man is again described:—*He is not master of himself. He 
does not know himself. He does not know those around him. 
He attacks every one, just as in a brawl at night he falls upon 
and strikes everyone in his path. He cries out rashly. He 


136 THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PATRISTIC STUDIES 


cannot control himself. He reviles, he abuses, he threatens, he 
curses, he shouts, he bursts.”— 

The evils of usury are thus held up to his hearers in Ps. 14, 
110D:—“The man in debt is both poverty-stricken and af- 
- flicted with many worries. He is sleepless by night, sleepless 
by day. At all times he is pre-occupied. Now he appraises his 
own property; now sumptuous homes, the fields of wealthy men, 
the garments of those whom he meets, the table-ware of diners. 
“If these were mine’, he says, ‘I should sell them for so much 
and I should pay that interest.’ Such thoughts besiege his heart 
by night and engage his thoughts by day. If you were to knock 
at his door, the debtor would get under the bed. Some one 
runs swiftly towards him and his heart palpitates. If a dog 
barks, he is bathed in sweat in his anguish, and looks where 
he may flee. As the day of reckoning approaches he wonders 
what lie he shall tell; what excuse he may fashion to hold off 
his creditor.”.—In Ps. 14, 107 D-108B is a detailed description 
of a usurer and his victim.—“But Greed beholds Want before 
his knees beseeching him, what abject act not doing, what 
abject word not saying. He does not pity him for his undeser- 
ved ill-fortune. He does not take his nature into account. He 
is not moved by prayers. He stands unbent and unsoftened, 
conceding nothing to his request, unmoved by his tears, per- 
sistently refusing him, swearing and taking oath that he is him- 
self without money and that he too is looking for a money- 
lender. Thus sealing his lie with oaths, he gains perjury as 
the profit of his inhumanity. But when Poverty mentions 
interest and names sureties, then letting down his eyebrows, 
Greed recalls his friendship with Poverty’s father and calls 
Poverty too his friend, and says, ‘Let’s see if I have any money 
laid up anywhere. Yes. A friend of mine has given me a sum 
of money as a working capital. He demanded heavy interest 
for it but I shall at all events part with some of it, loaning 
it to you at less interest’. Inventing such lies and fawning upon 
him with such words and enticing wretched Poverty, he binds 
him down with mortgages, and after thus adding slavery to his 
pressing circumstances, he departs.’—There are touches of 
ecphrasis in the foregoing, but very little of the sophistic manner 
which the character of the subject treated allows. | 


ECPHRASIS 137 


More vivid is the following picture of abandoned women at 
the festival commemorating the Resurrection:—“Unchaste wo- 
men, losing their fear of God, contemning eternal fire on that 
very day when in memory of the Resurrection they ought to 
stay at home and bethink themselves of that time day when the 
heavens shall be opened and the judge from heaven shall appear ~ 
and the trumpets of God and the resurrection of the dead and 
the just judgment and the awarding to every man in accord- 


ance with his works—instead of pondering on such themes 


and cleansing their hearts of wicked thoughts and washing 
away their sins in tears and preparing themselves to meet 
Christ on the great day of his coming, instead of all these, 
they shake off the yoke of Christ’s service, they cast from their 
heads the veils of decorum. They spurn His messengers. They, 
put to shame every man’s glance, shaking their heads, letting | 
their tunics trail, making lascivious motions with their feet to 
the accompaniment of wanton glances and bursts of laughter. 
In their mad dancing they draw all the licentiousness of youth 
to their persons. In the shrines of the martyrs, before the 
city’s gates, they establish their choruses and make of holy 
places a brothel for their shamelessness. They defile the earth 
with their libidinous feet, they sully the air with their licentious 
songs. They gather about them as an audience a throng of 
youths. Thus truly insolent and beside themselves, they ne- 
glect no excess of madness.”—In Ebriosos, 123 A-C. 

The following description of a bankrupt father is largely 
prosopopoiia and is counted as such under that. figure in this 
study, but it is also a striking instance of the indistinct line that 
oft-times separates the two devices.—“Gold’s fair gleam too 
much delights you (i. e. the avaricious man). You do not think 
upon the great and many cries of the needy man that follows 
at your back. How may I place before your eyes this man’s 
sad plight? He looks at his household resources. He perceives 
that now has he no gold and that he cannot acquire any. 
Clothing and raiment he has, but all told it is worth only a 
few obols. What then? At length he turns his eyes upon his 
children. How putting them up for sale in the market, may 
he find relief from threatening death? Behold the battle that 
then took place between pressing hunger and a father’s love. 


138 THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PATRISTIC STUDIES 


Starvation promises a death most cruel but nature stays his 
resolution and persuades him to die with his children. After 
many advances and many withdrawals, at length he gives in, 
forced by necessity and implacable want. But what thoughts 
course through that father’s mind? ‘Whom shall I sell first? 
Which one will delight the merchant’s eye? Shall I have re- 
course to the eldest? But I am ashamed before his years. Shall 
it better be the youngest? But I pity his youth that knows 
not yet adversity. The latter is the very image of his parents; 
the former is most apt in his studies. Alas for my resource-— 
lessness! Whither shall I turn? Which of them shall I take? 
What manner of beast shall I become? How can I forget my 
nature? IfI spare them all, I shall see them all wasted away 
with hunger. If I sell one of them, how shall I dare look 
upon the rest,—I, who am already suspected by them of be- 
traying them? How shall I dwell in my house, that am the 
author of its childlessness? How shall I approach the table 
whose abundance has such a cause’?”—JIn Illud Lucae, 46C0-47A. 


ScENES OF REPUGNANCE OR TERROR. 


The description of the famine and drought in Cappadocia 
is an effective ecphrasis, despite the fact that its details are 
personally known to the audience.— 

—“We see the heavens hard, naked, cloudless, producing a 
calm that is hateful and harmful in its clarity. This we longed 
for once, when the heavens over-cast with clouds made us sun- 
less and sad. But the earth now utterly parched is an ugly 
sight for the eye, sterile and unproductive for farming and 
receiving the shining rays into its very depths. The wealthy 
and perennial fountains have abandoned us and the streams 
of great rivers have been consumed. The smallest children 
crawl in them and pregnant women cross them. Drinking- 
water has failed many of us and we are in want. We are 
the new Isrealites seeking a new Moses and his marvelous 
staff, that the stricken rocks may minister to the needs of a 
thirsty people and that the mysterious clouds may shower down 
manna, a strange food for men.—Farmers brood over their 
fields; hold their knees with their hands (such is the attitude 
of those in anguish); weep for their own vain labors; gaze upon 


ECPHRASIS 139 


their infant children, mourning; look earnestly at their wives, 
lamenting. They feel and touch their dried-up produce; and 
wail like those who have been bereft of sons in the flower of 
their age.”—In Fam. et Siccit., 62D-63C. 

The appearance of habitual drunkards is thus described in 
In Ebriosos, 1250:— 
—‘“Their eyes are livid, their skin sallow, their breathing checked, 
the tongue hanging, they give out an indistinct noise. Their feet 
are unsteady like those of children. They belch out their ex- 
cesses 85 involuntarily as lifeless things.’—-In Ebriosos, 127 Ὁ 
to 1288, a drunken orgy is described in great detail. 

The death-bed scenes of a duped rich man is thus depicted 
in In Divites, 60 D-E:— 
—“Why await that hour when you will no longer be master 
of your faculties. Black night and mortal sickness come then 
and nowhere is there any one to help you. But he (heir) stands 
ready and waiting for your estate, managing all things to his 
own advantage and leaving unfulfilled your wishes. Then gazing 
hither and thither, and beholding the loneliness that besets 
_ you, you will come to know your madness. You will mourn 
your folly in that you have delayed until now when your tongue 
is dumb and your tremulous hand is helpless with involuntary 
contractions, so that neither with voice nor writing may you 
signify your intentions.”—The death of one unbaptized is thus 
held up to the audience in In Sanct. Baptisma, 121 C-D:—“Be- 
ware lest unexpectedly you come to that day when the re- 
sources of life will fail you and on every side will be helplessness 
and affliction above all relief, your physicians despairing, your 
neighbors despairing. Oppressed by pantings close and hard, 
a violent fever burning and consuming your internal parts, you 
will groan out of the depths of your heart but you will find 
no one to sympathize. You will speak a thin and feeble some- 
thing, but there will be no one to hear you. Everything you 
say will be put down to delirium. Who will give you baptism 
then? Who will remind you, stupefied with suffering? Your re- 
latives loose heart. Strangers make little of your illness. Your 
friend shrinks from reminding for fear of disturbing you. Your 
physician deceives you and you yourself do not despair because 
of your natural love of life. Night comes and there is no one 


140 THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PATRISTIC STUDIES 


to help you. There is no one to baptize you. Death stands near. 
They hasten to carry you off.”— 

The judgment-court of God and the horrors of Hell are thus 
depicted in Ps. 33, 151 D-E: 

—‘“Whenever you feel yourself drawn to some sin; imagine to 
yourself that horrible and unendurable court of Christ, where 
the judge sits upon a high and lofty throne, and all creation 
stands trembling before his splendid personality. We are about 
to be led forward one by one to an examination of our lives. 
For him that has done much wickedness fearful and gloomy 
angels wait, glancing fire, breathing fire in the bitterness of 
their purpose, with countenances like the night in their dark 
hostility to man. Picture to yourself a deep pit and impene- 
trable darkness and a black fire that burns in darkness and 
gives no illumination. Imagine a tribe of worms poisonous and 
carnivorous, eating insatiably and never filled, inflicting un- 
endurable agony in their devourings. Then picture the hea- 
viest punishment of all, the eternal disgrace and shame.”—Com- 
pare also In Divites, 58C. After-death and Hell is further 
described in In Sanct. Baptisma, 121 E-122 B.—“For destruction 
will suddenly be upon you ‘and ruin, like a hurricane, will | 
be at hand. A sable angel will come, dragging you off vio- 
lently and drawing your soul thus bound to your sins and 
frequently turning towards whatever is at hand and groaning 
without a voice, the organ of your lamentations having been 
sealed. ΟἹ how will you rend yourself! How will you groan! 
Futile will be your laments for your plans, when you behold 
the joy of the just in the brilliant array of their rewards and 
the dejection of sinners in the deepest darkness. What will 
you then say in the agony of your heart? ‘Ah, me, that I did 
not cast aside this heavy load of sin, when to lose it was so 
easy; that instead I have drawn to me this train of evils. Now 
would I be with the angels, now would I enjoy the delights of 
heaven. O! my wicked counsels. Because of the fleeting joys 
of sin 1 am to be tortured forever; because of the pleasures 
of the flesh I am given over to eternal fire. Just is the sen- 
tence of God. I was called and I did not hearken. I was 
told and I gave no heed. They begged me earnestly and I 
laughed at them’.”— 


ECPHRASIS 141 


The panegyrics on martyrs developed into a distinct literary 
type during the Fourth century. The cause for which the mar- 
tyrs died had finally triumphed and the anniversary of a mar- 
tyr’s death thus became an occasion for expressing this triumph 
in a solemn, official manner. One phase of this thanksgiving 
was an eloquent discourse on the martyr’s exploits, ‘he character 
of the sufferings of the martyrs, the edification of the faithful 
that would result from a forceful presentation of their exploits, 
the sophistic education of many of the orators called into play, 
and for useful purposes, the sophistic ecphrasis. 

In St. Basil ecphrases on the martyrs and other early 
Christians occur in the following places:—In Julittam, 34C-E; 
In Barlaam, 139B-140D; In Gordium. 143.D-144C; In Gor- 
dium, 144K-148E; In XL Martyres, 150C-155A; Quod Mun- 
danis, 171 A-173A. 

The longest and most vivid of the above group are the ec- 
phrases on the Forty Martyrs and on Gordius, respectively. 
We shall take the latter as an example. 

“When therefore all the people had been collected into that 
high place, not a Jew was absent, not a Greek. Moreover ἃ 
great multitude of Christians had joined with them, men who 
were living carelessly and sat with the council of vanity and 
did not decline the companionship of the wicked nor to watch 
fast horses and skilled charioteers. Even masters had dismis- 
sed their slaves and children were running from their studies 
to behold the games and even women of the lower classes were 
present. The stadium was now filled and all were intent on 
watching the races. 

“Then that noble man, great of soul and great of purpose, 
came down from the mountains on high. He did not tear the 
populace. He did not reckon against how many adversaries 
he was pitting himself, but with a bold heart and a lofty spirit 
he strode by those seated in the theater as if they had been 
so many rocks and trees, and stopped in the center of the 
stadium, confirming thus that statement that a just man is as 
bold as a lion. And of so bold a spirit was he that in that 
exposed place in the theater, with stout courage, he cried out 
that sentence which some men still living remember to have 
heard. ‘I was inquired of by them that asked not for me. I am 


142 THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PATRISTIO STUDIES 


found of them that sought me not.’ With these words he signi- 
fied that he had not been dragged by force to dangers, but 
that voluntarily he offered himself for the battle in imitation 
of his master, who, when he was least of all visible in the sha- 
dows of the night, gave himself up to the Jews. 

“Immediately the whole theater turned to this unusual sight: 
a man wild in appearance, because of his prolonged stay in the 
mountains, his head squalid, his beard long, his clothes soiled, 
his whole body withered away. He carried a staff and was 
equipped with a pouch. About all his person there clung a 
grace inspired by an unseen source. But as soon as he was 
recognized, a confused clamor arose from the multitude, the 
friends of the Faith applauding for joy, the enemies of truth 
calling on the judge for the death penalty and condemning him 
beforehand to death. The whole region was filled with the 
clamor and tumult. The horses were ignored. The chariots were 
ignored. The display of the chariots became a meaningless 
uproar. No man’s eyes saw ought but Gordius. No ear would 
hear ought but his words. And a murmuring, indistinct like a 
breeze, spread through all the theater and quelled the noise 
of the race. 

“Now when silence had been proclaimed by the heralds and 
the flutes were hushed and instruments of many tones were 
quiet, Gordius was heard, Gordius was seen. And straightway 
he was taken before the governor who was seated there presid- 
ing over the games. In mild and gentle tones the governor 
asked him who he was and whence he came. When he had 
told his country, his race, the rank which he enjoyed, the cause 
of his flight, his return, he continued, ‘I am here in contempt 
of your decrees and to show openly by my deeds my faith in 
God in whom I trust. I have heard that you excel many men 
in brutality. Wherefore I have chosen this occasion for the 
fulfillment of my vow.’ At these words the wrath of the governor 
flamed up like fire and all his latent spleen was poured on 
Gordius. ‘Get the executioners,’ he cried. ‘Where are the blades? 
Where the whips? Let him be stretched upon the wheel. Let 
him be wrenched in the equulus. Bring forth the tortures, wild 
beasts, fire, sword, the cross. Let a pit be dug. What will the 
knave gain, having only once to die?’ ‘What do I loose,’ Gordius — 


ECPHRASIS 143 


quickly responded, ‘unable to die many times for Christ?’ The 
governor, beyond his savage nature, was still more enraged at 
beholding the dignity of the man whose great sublimity of soul 
he thought a reflection on himself. And the more he beheld his 
intrepid spirit, the more enraged he became and the more eager 
to overcome his fortitude by thoughts of tortures. But Gordius, 
looking up to God, calmed his soul in the words of the holy 
psalms, ‘The Lord is on my side, I will not fear what man 
may do to me,’ ‘I will fear no evil for thou art with me’, and 
in like sayings which he had learned from the Holy Scriptures, 
calculated to awaken fortitude. He was so far from giving in 
to threats or terror that he even summoned the punishments 
to his person. ‘Why do you. delay?,’ he asked. ‘Why do you 
stand there? Let my body be mangled, let my limbs be twisted, 
let them endure whatsoever you will. Do not begrudge me this 
blessed aspiration. The greater the torments, the greater reward 
you will gain for me. This is my covenant with the Lord. In 
place of bruises standing out on my body, a radiant garment 
will blossom at my resurrection; in place of ignominy, crowns; 
instead of prison, paradise; instead of condemnation with crimi- 
nals, fellowship with angels. Sow generously in me that the 
harvest may be the richer.’ 

“Since they could not win him over through fear, they changed 
their tact to flattery. This is the method of the devil. He 
frightens the timid; he softens the courageous. Such tactics 
that wicked governor now used. When he saw that he would 
not yield to his threats, he tried to win him with deceit and 
blandishments. Some gifts he offered him on the spot, others 
he promised would be forthcoming from the king; a high com- 
mission in the army, a large income, whatsoever he wished. 

“But when he failed in this attempt too (for the blessed man, 
on hearing his promises, laughed at his folly that he should 
think himself able to offer anything comparable to the kingdom 
of heaven) then his wrath broke all bounds and he whipped 
out his sword and stood by the executioner. By hand and tongue 
soiling himself with murder, he condemned that blessed man to 
death. Then the whole theater passed over to that spot and 
all the inhabitants who had tarried in the city poured out be- 
fore the walls to view that great struggle—a sight admired of 


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angels and all creation but distressing to the devil and wicked 
spirits. The city was emptied of its inhabitants and, like a river, 
the multitude flowed ceaselessly to that spot. Not a woman 
wished to be absent from that spectacle, not a man, eminent 
or obscure, was absent. The guards left their garrisons; wares 
were left scattered around the market-place; all property had 
one garrison and surety—the fact that all alike had gone forth. 
Not even a criminal was left in the city. Slaves left the tasks 
of their masters. Foreigners and natives alike went forth to 
gaze upon Gordius. Virgins dared the gaze of men; the old 
and the sickly, doing violence to their weakness, went out 
beyond the walls. Friends standing about that blessed man, 
now hastening through death to Life, with many laments were 
embracing him and giving him a last farewell and, bathing 
him in hot tears, were begging him not to give himself over 
to the fire, not to throw away his young years, not to leave 
this sweet earth. Others, with persuasive counsels, tried to mis- 
lead him. ‘Deny God with your lips alone. Cherish your faith, 
as you will, in your heart. God does not look to the tongue 
but to the heart of the speaker. Thus you will be able to 
appease the governor and God.’ 

“But he remained inflexible and unmoved, invulnerable to 
every assault of temptation. (There follows a long speech in 
which Gordius bids them weep not for him but for the enemies 
of Christ; regrets that he can die once only for Christ; pro- 
fesses his emulation of the centurion Cornelius, and, in a series 
of questions and answers, shows the advantages of martyrdom 
superior to recantation.) After he had spoken thus and signed 
himself with the sign of the cross, he advanced to the block, 
his color changing not a whit, his countenance not losing its 
eagerness. His attitude was not that of one going to meet the 
executioner, but of one about to give himself into the hands 
of angels who, taking up his body, would transfer him like 
Lazarus to a lifé of blessedness. Who will describe the cry of 
that multitude? What thunder ever sent forth such a sound 
from the clouds as then from those below went up to heaven?” 

The ecphrasis on Gordius and that on the Forty Martyrs 
are the high-water mark of St. Basil’s use of the device. There 
are many conventional points in the martyrdom of Gordius 


ae eee le 


ECPHRASIS 145 


described above. The incidents are obviously not entirely 
historical. The defiance, the mental struggle, the conflict with 
the governor, the amazingly long speech just before the exe- 
cution are clearly commonplaces filled in by St. Basil for the 
edification of the multitude. And yet there were old men present 
who could have told St. Basil from personal observation some 
facts about the martyrdom that would have added a certain 
freshness to his narrative, whatever might thus have been lost 
of sophistic brilliance. That despite this fact St. Basil follows 
the fashion is a significant commentary on the strength of the 
sophistic tradition in him®. But even so this ecphrasis is not 
excessively sophistic. Basil has a good opportunity in the actual 
death of Gordius to paint a bloody scene. He barely suggests 
the execution in strange contrast to the dramatic details pre- 
ceding and following the event. 

St. Basil’s use of ecphrasis is sophistic in manner, but. not 
extremely so. Unlike St. Gregory of Nyssa, who included most 
of the categories found in the Progymnasmata,!9 St. Basil is 
very indifferent to the conventional themes. St. Gregory of 
Nazianzus and St. John Chrysostom are more restrained than 
St. Gregory of Nyssa, but Chrysostom can wax redundant over 
a scene of torture!! and Nazianzus can break off his discourse 
to describe the dance of the Menads.12 St. Basil exhibits 
descriptive powers of the highest order, but they are always 
at the service of his preacher’s purpose. The element of dis- 
play is subordinated in him as it is not always in Nazianzus and 
Chrysostom. St. Basil’s use of ecphrasis is consistent with his 
use of devices less peculiarly sophistic. He uses it liberally 
and skilfully, but for serious purposes and, considering the 
taste of the times, with restraint. . 





9 Delahaye, 224. 
10 Méridier, 141. 
11 Delahaye, 218. 
12 Or. II P. 6. 36, p. 260. 


16 


CHAPTER XIV 
CONCLUSION 


In common with his Christian contemporaries! St. Basil 
emphatically proclaims his complete divorce from that pagan 
culture which engaged his student years. From his sermons 
alone can be culled enough statements to present the appearance 
of an unvarying attitude. 

In Hex. 6,510 he stops in the midst of a difficult piece 
of exegesis to deliver himself of this parenthesis:—“Now do 
not laugh at the homeliness of my diction, for we do not 
approve of your high-spun phrases and care not a jot for your 
harmonious arrangements. Our writers do not waste their time 
in polishing periods. We prefer clarity of expression to mere 
euphony.” In discussing the intellectual pursuits of the time 
and their efficacy for salvation, after protesting against the 
study of geometry and astrology to the exclusion of religious 
education, he has this to say of what was largely his own 
curriculum in his youth:—“But poetry and rhetoric and the 
invention of sophisms engage the energies of many men, and 
the materials of these pursuits are a tissue of unrealities, for 
neither may poetry be developed without fables, nor rhetoric 
without the art of speaking, nor sophistry without sophisms.”— 
In Princip. Proverb., 102C. That he could thus baldly place 
the art of speaking by the side of fables and sophisms is a 
valuable index of opinion in Christian circles. Compare also 
in the same sermon 103C-D and 103E. Speaking on the 
attainment of humility in De Humilitate 162 A, St. Basil thus 
mentions artistic speech among the pursuits to be avoided:— 
“Do not, I pray you, display sophistic vanities in your speech.” 





1 Méridier, 58-68; Guignet, 43-70; Ameringer, 20-28. 


CONCLUSION 147 


The pagan encomium was a literary type fast and fixed. 
The rhetorician Menander in his Περὶ ἐπιδεικτικῶν 2 describes it 
in detail. In his panegyrics on the martyrs St. Basil makes 
several references to the laws of the encomium. In In Gor- 
dium, 142 D-143 A he expresses himself thus frankly on the 
utility of some of its commonplaces:—“The school of God does 
not recognize the laws of the encomium, but holds that a mere 
telling of the martyr’s deeds is a sufficient praise for the saints 
and sufficient inspiration for those who are struggling towards 
virtue. For it is the fixed habit of encomia to search out 
the history of the native city, to find out the family exploits, 
and to relate the education of the subject of the encomium, 
but it is our custom to pass over in silence such details and 
to compose the encomium of each martyr from those facts 
which have a bearing on his martyrdom. How could I be an 
object of more reverence or be more illustrious from the fact 
that my native city once upon a time endured great and heavy 
battles and after routing her enemies erected famous trophies? 
What if she is so happily located that in summer and winter 
her climate is pleasant? If she is the mother of heroes and 
is capable of supporting cattle, what gain are these to me? 
In her herds of horses she surpasses all lands under the sun. 
How may these facts improve us in manly virtue? If we talk 
about the peaks of near—by mountains, how they out—top 
the clouds and reach the farthest stretches of the air, shall 
we deceive ourselves into thinking that drawing praise from 
these facts, we give praise to men? Of all things it is most 
absurd that when the just despise the whole world, we cele- 
brate their praises from those things which they contemned.” 
—Compare also In XL Martyres, 150A. In In Mamantenm, 
185D he again discusses encomia in no uncertain terms:— 
“The true encomium of a martyr is his wealth of spiritual 
graces. We cannot adorn his memory with the ways of pagan 
encomia. We cannot discuss his parents and ancestors. For 
it is a shameful thing to adorn with other ornaments him 
whose chief adornment was his own virtue.” : 

Statements so positive bespeak an uncompromising opposition 





2 Spengel, III, 368-377. 
10* 


148 THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PATRISTIC STUDIES 


to paganism in all its works and pomps. As to the pomps St.. 
Basil was not entirely successful. It is worth noting for instance 
that in the very first of the above declarations, i. e. in Hex. 6, 
510, St. Basil registers his protest in a carefully constructed 
chiasmus. In In XL Martyres 150B, almost immediately after 
emancipating Christian panegyrics from “slavishly following the 
laws of the encomium,” he touches upon two of its τόποι in a 
figurative way, those of πόλις and γένος, while the descriptions 
of martyrdoms found in his panegyrics are but another τόπος 
of the conventional encomium. Here and there in the sermons, 
moreover, are to be found figures and devices whose rarity and 
isolation only re-inforce their glaring sophistic character. I 
refer to the excessive elaborateness in structure, the astounding 
paradox, the atrocious pun, the far-fetched metaphor that one 
occasionally finds in his pages. They are exceptional in their 
class but they too demonstrate Basil’s want of success in at- 
taining that complete divorce from pagan rhetoric whereat he 
professed to aim. 

The testimony of every chapter, however, is uniform in calling 
St. Basil restrained. In Figures of Redundancy there is a 
tendency towards turgescence but not an excessive tendency; 
of Figures of Repetition he gives us a few elaborate examples 
of a device otherwise restrained and never very numerous in 
his sermons; of Figures of Sound he is surprisingly sparing in 
both number and quality; Figures of Vivacity and Court-room 
Devices are considerable in number but restrained in character, 
a restraint emphasized by a few striking exceptions. In those 
Minor Figures especially characteristic of the Second Sophi- 
stic—antimetathesis, antonomasia, hyperbole, paradox, hendia- 
dys, hyperbaton—the sophistic quality is very palpable, but the 
recurrences to these devices singularly rare. Figures of Paral- 
lelism are frequently found, examples clearly showing St. Basil’s 
easy mastery of these devices, but not in the numbers to be 
expected in a product of the Sophistic. In antithesis, at least, 
he is very restrained; in homoioteleuton, remarkably so. There 
occur at great intervals prolonged examples of rhetorical 
questions, asyndeton, polysyndeton, metaphors, comparisons—all 
of them showing what St. Basil could have done, had he been 
so minded, Distinguishing for the moment the inflexible forms 


CONCLUSION 149 


of the sophistic rhetoric from their manner of development, 
we perceive that in the metaphor, comparison, and ecphrasis 
St. Basil cared little for conventional sophistic themes, but that 
he gives ample proof of a sophistic manner in developing the 
figures, being most sophistic in non-sophistic categories. This 
sophistic manner is most palpable in metaphors and comparisons, 
prosopopolia and ecphrasis—in the meticulous correspondences 
worked out in the first two and the dramatic development of 
the second. But even here the preacher’s purpose largely 
accounts for the sophistic quality. St. Basil must drive home 
his points with all the resources at his command and these 
resources were sophistic, acquired in the school-days at 
Nicomedia, Caesarea, and Athens. 

Compared with the two Gregories and Chrysostom, St. Basil, 
so far as we may judge from his sermons, is the least sophistic 
of them all. On the grounds of frequency of figures the judgment 
is not in every case certain, but on the grounds of quality, from 
the most basic minor figures to ecphrasis, St. Basil is less ex- 
cessive, less extravagant than they and he follows to a far less 
degree the conventional sophistic, themes. Moreover, display 
is never the chief motive of any figure. And many of St. Basil’s 
figures occur so rarely relative to the text that in the light 
of only general statements on the sophists of the epoch we are 
enabled on the grounds of frequency too to pronounce him 
moderate on the whole. 

If Basil is so restrained among a people who loved rhetorical 
excess, how are we to account for his reputation as an orator 
in his own time? His serious purpose is probably the answer. 
A. pagan sophist kept ever trying to out—do himself and other 
sophists in progressive extravagance simply because there was 
nothing else for him to do. He had no new materials. There- 
fore, to maintain his reputation and retain his audience, he 
must rely on rhetorical ingenuity. The Christian religion, and 
particularly the theological battles of the Fourth Century, eli- 
minated the necessity for such measures to a large extent. A 
vigorous personality, thoroughly trained and with important 
themes, did not need to resort to the excesses of the sophists 
to make and preserve a reputation. 

Towards the conclusion of Quod Mundanis, 170C to be 


150 THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PATRISTIC STUDIES 


precise, occurs a splendid opportunity for one who was only 
a sophist. Basil has just referred to a fire in a near—by 
church. Here is an opportunity for a gorgeous ecphrasis 
on the fire, but Basil passes by, contenting himself with 
an elaborate metaphor, sophistic in manner, to be sure, but 
Christian in purpose. The opportunities for display and extra- 
vagance that the wide range of the sermons afford and his 
almost complete renunciation of such occasions, the sophistic 
manner most appearing when ancillary to the preacher's office, 
the undoubted quality of his purely sophistic departures compel 
us to concede to him a large measure of success in realizing 
an objective whose complete realization was impossible, a larger 
success, in fact, than can be grantéd the Gregories and Chry- 
sostom. His serious purpose in all devices could well be sum- 
med up by his attitude toward the use of allegory in Hex. 9, 
80B-C:—*I know the laws of allegory, though not from my 
own works but from the works of others. Some preachers do 
not concede the common sense of the Scriptures. They will 
not call water water, but some other nature. They interpret a 
plant or fish as their fancy wishes. They change the nature 
of reptiles and wild beasts to fit them in their allegories, like 
those who explain phenomena that appear in dreams to suit 
their own ends. When I hear the word grass, I understand 
that grass is meant. Plant, fish, wild beast, domestic animal— 
I take all in a literal sense. ‘For I am not ashamed of the 
Gospel ’,.”— 

This serious purpose in contact with pagan excesses was be- 
trayed in the heat and sweep of delivery into statements that 
of themselves admit of no compromise. Is not St. Basil more 
just to the pagans and to his own use of their devices in his 
sermons when he says of their culture in the excellent and 
dispassionate essay, Ad Adolescentes, 175B-C, “The fruit of 
the.soul is pre-eminently truth, yet to clothe it with external 
wisdom is not without merit, giving a kind of foliage and 
covering for the fruit and an aspect by no means ugly?”— 


INDEX! 


Abbreviations, xvi. 

Adjective Substantive Abstract, 24; 
description of, 66; use of in the 
sermons, 67. 

Aelius Aristides, 17. 

Aeschines, 4. 

Agatharchides of Alexandria, 11. 

Alexander, 5; 7. 

Alexander, Bishop, 72. 

Alexandria, 10; 13. 

Alexandrian Age, 5; 9; 10; 15. 

Alexandrianism, 13. 

Alexandrian Poetry, 13; 18; research 
in, 16; 18. 

Alexandrian Poets, 18, 

Alliteration, 22; 42. 

Ameringer, ix; x; 109. 

Anadiplosis, 21; in the sermons, 32. 

Anastrophe, 21; in the sermons, 35; 
38. 

Andocides, 4, 

Antimetathesis, 24; description of, 
74; in the sermons, 74. 

Antioch, 19; Council of, 19. 

Antiphon, 4. 

Antistrophe, 21; in the sermons, 35; 
38. 

Antithesis; care needed in treatment 

_ of, xi; 77; 80; symmetry and, 81; 
explanation of, 88; in the ser- 
mons, 89; 93. 

Antithesis, Chiastic, 77. 

Antonines, the, 14. 


5 








Antonomasia, 24; 65; description 
of, 72; in the sermons, 73. 

ἀρχαῖοι, oi, 11. 

Aristides, 70. 

Aristophanes, 18, 

Aristotle, 6; on antithesis, 88. 

Arius 72. 

Arsis and Thesis, xi; 21; 29; 30. 

Asia Minor, parade-speech of, 17. 

Asianism, 6; 6-10; 11; 12; 13; 14; 16. 

Asiatics, 11, 

Assonance, 22; in the sermons, 42. 

Asyndeton, 22; description of, 44; 
in the sermons, 44-47; 49; 63; 
148. 

Athens, 14; Periclean, 15; 23; Uni- 
versity of, 19; Basil at, 75; Fifth 
Century, 80. 

Atticism, 10-12; 18; 14; 15; 16. 

Augustus, 12, 

Basil, St., 18; 19; 20; his anti- 
thesis compared to that of Nazi- 
anzus and Chrysostom, 89; so- 
phistic manner of in metaphors, 
102; sophistic subject-matter of his 
metaphors in, 108; the sea and, 
116; acknowledges utility of ec- 
phrasis, 129; indifference of to pa- 
gan ecphrasis, 133; protests of 
against pagan culture, 146; on 
encomia, 147; inconsistencies of 
in very declarations against pagan 
culture, 148; restraint of, 148; 


1 Ordinarily reference is made neither to examples of a figure nor to its 
frequency. These regularly follow the “explanation of” or “description of”. 


152 THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PATRISTIC STUDIES 


comparison of to the Gregories 
and Chrysostom, 149; his re- 
putation as an orator, 149; his 
renunciations of occasions for dis- 
play, 150; his serious purpose seen 
in his attitude towards allegory, 
150; his opinion of the value of 
pagan culture, 150. 

Benedictine edition, ix; why used, 
xiii. 

Berytos, 19. 

Bessiéres, ix. 

Bibliography, Select, v-vii. 

Byzantine Literature, 13. 

Byzantium, 19. 

Butin, Romanus, acknowledgment 
to, xiil. 

Caesarea, 75; 149. 

Chiasmus, 77; 91; explanation of, 
91; in the sermons, 93. 

Chiasmus, Antithetical, 92; ex- 
planation of, 92; in the sermons, 
93. 

Chronological Table, xiv-xv. 

Chrysostom, Dio, 17. 

Chrysostom, St. John, ix; x; 18; 
19; Figures of Sound in, 43; hy- 
perbole in, 72; antithesis in, 89; 
metaphor in, 98; 102; metaphors 
of hippodrome in, 108; 127; ec- 
phrasis in, 145; compared to St. 
Basil, 149; 150. 

Cicero, 8, 

Climax, in the sermons, 21; 36. 

Comparison, 78; explanation of, 110; 
contrasted with metaphor, 110; 
division of, 111; sophistic cate- 
gories of, 111; comparison of 
to St. Basil’s metaphors, 111; in 
the sermons, 124ff.; 128; 149. 

Comparison, Long., 78-79; 113ff.; 
126, 

Comparison, Redundant, 79; 114 ff; 
126. 

Composition, Figures of, in time of 
the Empire, 55. 





Constantine, 17; 19. 

Corax, 2. 

Court-room, Devices of, why inclu- 
ded, xii; 20; 23. 


Declamation, Oratory of, 4; 6. 

Deferrari, studies of text of letters 
of St. Basil x; acknowledgment to, 
xiii. 

Demetrius, 81. 

Demetrius of Phaleron, 5; 10, 

Demosthenes, 4; 6; 9; 11; Philip- 
pics of, 17; anadiplosis and, 82; 
anastrophe and, 35; monotony of 
parallelism and, 82. 
Dialectic, why: omitted, xiii. 
Dialektikon, 23; description of, 
61; in the sermons, 61-62; 63. 
Diaporesis, 23; description of, 56; 
in the sermons 56; 63. 

Diatribe, 5, 6. ᾿ 

Dinarchus, 5. - 

Dion of Prusa, isocolon in, 81; anti- 
thesis, 89. 

Dionysius of Halicarnassus, 7. 


Early Greece, literature of, 13. 

Ecphrasis, prosopopoiia and, 58; 
60; 76; 79; explanation of, 128; 
categories of, 128-129; of persons, 
129; non-pagan varieties of, 134 ff., 
use of in the sermons, 144-145. 

Elegiac poetry, 1. 

Ennius, 14, 

Epanaphora, 21; 32; in the sermons, 
33; 38. 

Epanaphora, Sentence, 33; Clause, 
33. 

Ephesus, 10; 12. 

Epideictic Oratory, 4; of Asia, 14. 

Kpidiorthosis, 23; description of, 56; 
in the sermons, 57; 63. 

Eratosthenes, 17. 

Kunapius, 17, 

Eusebius, Life of Constantine of, 72. 

Exclamatio, 22; description of, 52; 
in the sermons, 52. 


INDEX 


γένος, a topic of encomia, 148. 

Gordianus iii, 17. 

Gordius, Martyrdom of, 141-144. 

Gorgias, 2; 4; 6; 7; 9; 11; 19; 86: 
excess of sound figures in, 43; 
80; 82; antithesis and, 88. 

Gorgianic Figures, and paronomasia, 
39; variations of, 76; 80ff.,; in the 
sermons, 93-95; in Libanius and 
Himerius, 94. 

Greece, 14; subjugated, 17. 

Greek Novels, 18. 

Gregories, the, x; 18; 102; com- 
pared to St. Basil, 149, 150, 

Gregory of Nazianzus St., ix; 19; 
Figures of Sound in, 43; hyper- 
bole in, 72; antithesis and, 89; 
chiasmus in, 91; metaphor in, 
98; metaphors of the hippo- 
drome in, 108; his metaphor 
compared to St. Basil’s, 109; 
127; new use of ecphrasis in, 
129; use of ecphrasis in, 145. 

Gregory of Nyssa, ix; 19; Figures 
of Sound in, 43; hyperbole in, 72; 
antithesis and, 89; metaphor in, 98; 

᾿ 127; new use of ecphrasis in, 129; 
ecphrasis in, 145. 

Guignet, ix; isocolon and, 81; ob- 
jection to use of statistics, ix-x. 


Hadrian, 14: 17. . 

Hecataeus, 12, 

Hegesias of Magnesia, 7. 

Hellenist, of Second Century, 17. 

Hendiadys, 24; 65; description of, 66; 
in the sermons, 66. 

Heraclitus, 80. 

_ Hermogenes, on antistrophe, 35; on 
hyperbole, 69; his praise of De- 
mosthenes, 82. 

Herodes Atticus, 17. 

Herodotus, 12; 17. 

Hexaémeron, sparsity of sophistic 
comparisons in, 126. 

Himerius, 18; 19; 70; antithesis in, 
89; chiasmus in, 91. 





153 


Hippias, 9. 

Hippodrome, indifference of St. Basil 
to, 108. 

Homer, 32; 35. 

Homeric Poems, 1. 

Homilies, on the Martyrs, 58; on the 
Psalms, 58; prosopopoiia in, 58. 

Homoioteleuton, 77; 80; symme- 
try and, 81; explanation of, 87-88; 
in the sermons, 88. 

Hyperbaton, 24; 65; description of, 
65; in the sermons, 65-66. 

Hyperbole, 24; 69; description of, 
69; in the sermons, 70-71. 

Hyperides, 4. 

Hypophora, 24; description of, 62; 
63. 

Hypostrophe, 23; description of, 54; 
in the sermons, 54, 


Iambic poetry, 1. 

Ionians, 2. 

Irony, 23; in the sermons, 55; 63. 

Isaeus, 4; anastrophe and, 35. 

Isocolon, 76; explanation of, 81; in 
the sermons, 81-82. 

Isocrates, 4; 6; 11; 17; 25; 110. 

Isocratic Tradition, 27; 110. 

Italy, Northern, 14. 


Judical Oratory, 4; 5. 
Julian of Cappodocia, 19. 
Julian, Emperor, 19. 
Justinian, 19. 


κύκλος, 21; in the sermons, 36; 38. 


Libanius, 18; 19; parison in, 82; 
antithesis in, 89. 

Litotes, 23; description of, 54; in 
the sermons, 55. 

Love-letter, Fictitious, 18. 

Lycurgus, 4. 

Lysias, 4; 6; 17. 


Menander, 18. 
Menander Rhetor, 147. 
Méridier, ix; x; 109. 


154 THE CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY OF AMERICA PATRISTIC STUDIES 


Metaphor, difficulty in treatment of, 
xi; 76; 78; 96ff.; explanation 
of, 96-98; categories of, 97; 
characteristics of sophistic, 96; 
Christian uses of, 97-98: sophi- 
stic manner of in the sermons, 
103; in the sermons, 108-109; in- 
frequency of technical, 108; prac- 
tical use of, 108; contrasted with 
comparison, 110; 126; 148. 

Metaphor, Prolonged, 78; 108. 

Metaphor, Redundant, 78; 108. 

Method of dissertation, ix. 

Migne, xiii. 

Miletus, 10; 12. 

μίμησις, 10. 

Minor Figures, 20-24, 

Minor Figures Sophistically Deve- 
loped, 20; 24; grouping of, 65; 
in the sermons, 74-75. 

Mytilene, 10; 12. 

Naples, 14. 

Neanthes of Pergamus, 11. 

Neo-Platonism, 15. 

Newrepo, of, 11. 

Nicomedia, 75; 149. 

Nicostratus, 17. 

Novelli Poetae, 14. 

ὠδίνω, 103; 109. ¥ 

Olynthians, 8. 

Oratory, see rhetoric, epedeitic, ju- 
dicial etc. 

Oxymoron, 24; paradox and, 67; 89. 


Panegyrics on Martyrs, ecphrasis 
and, 141-145. 

Paradox, 24; 65; description of, 67; 
oxymoron and, 68; in the ser- 
mons, 68; 148. 


Paraleipsis, 23; description of, 57;. 


in the sermons, 58. 

Parallelism, variations of, xii; 77; 
explanation of, 92. 

Parechesis, 22; 42; in the sermons, 
43. 

Parenthesis, 22; description of, 53; 
in the sermons, 53; 54; 63. 





Parison; 77; 82; symmetry and, 82; 
isolon and, 82; 83; explanation of, 
82; classification of, 83; in the 
sermons, 87; chiasmus and, 91. 

Parison, Chiastic, 77. 

Parison, Perfect, 77; 83. 

Parison, Sentence, 77; 86. 

Paromoion, 87. 

Paronomasia, 22; 39; in the sermons, 
40. 

Pergamus, 11. 

Periphrasis 21; 25; 26; 27. 

Philip, 17. 

Philostratus the Second, 17. 

Plato, 5; 11. 

Pleonasm, 21; 27; 28. 

Pliny the Younger, 12. 

Polemo, 17; 89. 

πόλις, a topic of encomia, 148. 

Political Oratory, 4; 5; 6. 

Polyptoton, 22; 40; in the sermons, 
41. 

Polysyndeton, 22; description of, 47; 
in the sermons, 48-49; 63; 148. 

Procopius of Gaza, 19. 

Prodicus of Ceos, 58. 

Prodiorthosis, 24; description of, 62; 
in the sermons, 63. 

Prokataleipsis, 23; description of, 
57; in the sermons, 57; 63. 

Prosopopoiia, xi; 23; description 
of, 58; examples of, 58; in the 
sermons, 60. 

Protagoras, 2; 3. 

Puech, ix. 

Pun, 148. 

Pythagoras, 58, 

Quintillian, 12. 

Redundancy, Figures of, 20; 25ff.; 
in the sermons, 31; antonomasia 
and, 72. 

Repetition, Figures of, 20; 32ff.; 
in the sermons, 38. 

Repetitive Paronomasia, 21; 36; in 
the sermons, 38. 

Revue de synthése historique, ix. 


INDEX 


Rhetoric, beginnings of, 1; of Em- 
pire, 25; Figures of Sound in, 39; 
antonomasia in, 72. 

Rhetoric, Figures of, classification 
of, 20. 

Rhetorical Questions, 22; descrip- 
tion of, 49; in the sermons, 52; 
63; 148. 

Robinson, 36. 

Romance, Sophistic, 18. 

Romans, 10. 

Rome, 14. 


Sarcasm, 23; in the sermons, 55; 63. 

School Life, in the Second Century, 
15. 

Sicily, 2. 

Society, under the Empire, 14; 16. 

σοφία, 2, 

Sophistic, First, 1 ff.; 20. 

Sophistic, Second, ix; xi; an epoch 
in the history of rhetoric, xii; 
xiii; 5; 12; 14; 19; periods of, 
17; 19; 20; Figures of Sound 
and, 43; Minor Figures and, 65; 
hyperbaton and, 65; ecphrasis 
and. 76; Gorgianic Figures and, 
80; 94; parison in, 82; antithesis, 
89; metaphor and, 96; 108. 

Sophistic, Second, Figures and De- 
vices, classification, of, 76. 

Sophists, 2; of Second Century, 
15; 17; canon: of, 17; Figures of 





155 


Sound in, 43; prosopopoiia and, 
58; hyperbaton in, 65; paradox 
and, 67; hyperbole and, 69; anti- 
metathesis and, 74; innovations 
with parison, 82; antithesis and, 
89; metaphor and, 96-97; com- 
parison and, 110; figures of the 
studio and, 120; ecphrasis and, 
128; reason for artificiality of, 
149, 

Sound, Figures of, 20; 22; 39; in 
the sermons, 43; 148; care in 
collecting of, xi. 

Statistics, ix; the case against, ix 
to x; the case for, x; necessity 
of, xi; considerations in case of, 
xi-xii; use of especially appro- 
priate in this study, xii. 

Smyrna, 10; 12. 

Synechdoche, antonomasia and, 72. 


Themistius, 18; 19; parison and, 82, 

Theophrastus, 5. 

Thucydides, 12; 17. 

Tisias, 2. 

Tragic Poets, anastrophe and, 35. 

Trajan, 16; 17. 

Vivacity, Figures of, 22-24; 44; 63. 

Western Taste, St. Basil’s use of 
dialektikon and, 61; his use of 
antonomasia and, 73, 


Xenophon, 13. 


VITA 


James Marshall Campbell was born at Warsaw, New York, 
September 30, 1895. He received his elementary education at the 
Warsaw Union and High School. In June, 1917 he received 
the degree of Bachelor of Arts from Hamilton College. The 
following September he entered the Princeton Graduate School 
on the Locke fellowship in Greek that had been awarded him 
by Hamilton College. At Princeton he pursued courses under 
Professor Edward Capps, Associate Professor Εἰ, L. Hutson, 
Dr. Paul Van den Ven, and Dr. Roy J. Deferrari. These 
studies were interrupted by the Great War. In September, 
1919, still enjoying the Locke Fellowship and thereafter a 
Knights of Columbus Fellowship, he entered the Catholic Uni- 
versity of America. There he pursued courses under Professors 
R. J. Deferrari, James Joseph Fox, Charles A. Dubray, 5. M., 
Ignatius Smith, O. P. and Charles H. Mc Carthy. In June 1920 
he received the degree of Master of Arts from the Catholic 
University. 





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